Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Corynebacterium diphtheriae and Related Toxigenic Species pp 1–14Cite as

Diphtheria and its Etiological Agents

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

Diphtheria, the ‘strangling angel of children’, plagued mankind for thousands of years. With the discovery of its etiological agent, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, it became a paradigm of an infectious disease. According to Koch’s postulates C. diphtheriae was isolated by Klebs and Loeffler from infected patients, grown in pure culture and used to re-infect guinea pigs as test animals. Loeffler also recognized that the bacterium predominantly colonizes the nasopharyngeal cavity and, based on this observation, postulated that the secretion of a toxin might cause the often fatal damage of distant organs, a hypothesis, which was further supported by Roux and Yersin. While toxin production is the most dangerous aspect of diphtheria infection, the diphtheria toxin has also been the basis for effective diphtheria treatment and control. Already in 1890, von Behring suggested antitoxin application as a means of diphtheria treatment; in 1913 he developed a first vaccine against diphtheria toxin and in 1920 first mass vaccinations started. Mass immunization is still the most efficient means to prevent and control diphtheria, while antibiotics are effective to eradicate the bacteria from infected patients.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Baba M, Gilliatt RW, Harding AE, Reiners K (1984) Demyelination following diphtheria toxin in the presence of axonal atrophy. J Neurol Sci 64(2):199–211

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baird GJ, Fontaine MC (2007) Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis and its role in ovine caseous lymphadenitis. J Comp Pathol 137(4):179–210

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Begg N (1994) Manual of the management and control of diphtheria in the European region. Vol ICP/EPI 038 (B). World Health Organization, Copenhagen

    Google Scholar 

  • Belmares J, Detterline S, Pak JB, Parada JP (2007) Corynebacterium endocarditis species-specific risk factors and outcomes. BMC Infect Dis 7:4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bezjak V, Farsey SJ (1970a) Corynebacterium diphtheriae carriership in Ugandan children. J Trop Pediatr 16(1):12–16

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bezjak V, Farsey SJ (1970b) Corynebacterium diphtheriae in skin lesions in Ugandan children. Bull World Health Organ 43(5):643–650

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bonmarin I, Guiso N, Le Fleche-Mateos A, Patey O, Patrick AD, Levy-Bruhl D (2009) Diphtheria: a zoonotic disease in France? Vaccine 27(31):4196–4200

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bostock AD, Gilbert FR, Lewis D, Smith DC (1984) Corynebacterium ulcerans infection associated with untreated milk. J Infect 9(3):286–288

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buck GA, Cross RE, Wong TP, Loera J, Groman N (1985) DNA relationships among some tox-bearing corynebacteriophages. Infect Immun 49(3):679–684

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cianciotto NP, Groman NB (1996) Extended host range of a beta-related corynebacteriophage. FEMS Microbiol Lett 140(2–3):221–225

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Connell TG, Rele M, Daley AJ, Curtis N (2005) Skin ulcers in a returned traveller. Lancet 365(9460):726

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corboz L, Thoma R, Braun U, Zbinden R (1996) Isolation of Corynebacterium diphtheriae subsp. belfanti from a cow with chronic active dermatitis. Schweiz Arch Tierheilkd 138(12):596–599

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • De Zoysa A, Hawkey PM, Engler K, George R, Mann G, Reilly W, Taylor D, Efstratiou A (2005) Characterization of toxigenic Corynebacterium ulcerans strains isolated from humans and domestic cats in the United Kingdom. J Clin Microbiol 43(9):4377–4381

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dessau RB, Brandt-Christensen M, Jensen OJ, Tonnesen P (1995) Pulmonary nodules due to Corynebacterium ulcerans. Eur Respir J 8(4):651–653

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dittmann S, Wharton M, Vitek C, Ciotti M, Galazka A, Guichard S, Hardy I, Kartoglu U, Koyama S, Kreysler J, Martin B, Mercer D, Ronne T, Roure C, Steinglass R, Strebel P, Sutter R, Trostle M (2000) Successful control of epidemic diphtheria in the states of the Former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: lessons learned. J Infect Dis 181(Suppl 1):S10–22

    Google Scholar 

  • Dixon B (2010) Sick as a dog. Lancet Infect Dis 10(2):73

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dolman CE (1973) The Donald T. Fraser Memorial Lecture, 1973. Landmarks and pioneers in the control of diphtheria. Can J Public Health 64(4):317–336

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dorella FA, Pacheco LG, Oliveira SC, Miyoshi A, Azevedo V (2006) Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis: microbiology, biochemical properties, pathogenesis and molecular studies of virulence. Vet Res 37(2):201–218

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Efstratiou A, Engler KH, Dawes CS, Sesardic D (1998) Comparison of phenotypic and genotypic methods for detection of diphtheria toxin among isolates of pathogenic corynebacteria. J Clin Microbiol 36(11):3173–3177

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • English PC (1985) Diphtheria and theories of infectious disease: centennial appreciation of the critical role of diphtheria in the history of medicine. Pediatrics 76(1):1–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Eskola J, Lumio J, Vuopio-Varkila J (1998) Resurgent diphtheria-are we safe? Br Med Bull 54(3):635–645

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Falnes PO, Sandvig K (2000) Penetration of protein toxins into cells. Curr Opin Cell Biol 12(4):407–413

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Galazka AM, Robertson SE, Oblapenko GP (1995) Resurgence of diphtheria. Eur J Epidemiol 11(1):95–105

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert L (1997) Infections with Corynebacterium diphtheriae—changing epidemiology and clinical manifestations. Report of the third international meeting of the European Laboratory Working Group on Diphtheria (ELWGD), Institute Pasteur, Paris 7–8 June 1996. Commun Dis Intell 21(12):161–164

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Groman NB (1984) Conversion by corynephages and its role in the natural history of diphtheria. J Hyg (Lond) 93(3):405–417

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Grundbacher FJ (1992) Behring’s discovery of diphtheria and tetanus antitoxins. Immunol Today 13(5):188–190

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hadfield TL, McEvoy P, Polotsky Y, Tzinserling VA, Yakovlev AA (2000) The pathology of diphtheria. J Infect Dis 181(Suppl 1):S116–S120

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall AJ, Cassiday PK, Bernard KA, Bolt F, Steigerwalt AG, Bixler D, Pawloski LC, Whitney AM, Iwaki M, Baldwin A, Dowson CG, Komiya T, Takahashi M, Hinrikson HP, Tondella ML (2010) Novel Corynebacterium diphtheriae in domestic cats. Emerg Infect Dis 16(4):688–691

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamour AA, Efstratiou A, Neill R, Dunbar EM (1995) Epidemiology and molecular characterisation of toxigenic Corynebacterium diphtheriae var mitis from a case of cutaneous diphtheria in Manchester. J Infect 31(2):153–157

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hardy IR, Dittmann S, Sutter RW (1996) Current situation and control strategies for resurgence of diphtheria in newly independent states of the former Soviet Union. Lancet 347(9017):1739–1744

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison BM, McDonald WI, Ochoa J (1972) Remyelination in the central diphtheria toxin lesion. J Neurol Sci 17(3):293–302

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hart RJ (1984) Corynebacterium ulcerans in humans and cattle in North Devon. J Hyg (Lond) 92(2):161–164

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hatanaka A, Tsunoda A, Okamoto M, Ooe K, Nakamura A, Miyakoshi M, Komiya T, Takahashi M (2003) Corynebacterium ulcerans Diphtheria in Japan. Emerg Infect Dis 9(6):752–753

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Henricson B, Segarra M, Garvin J, Burns J, Jenkins S, Kim C, Popovic T, Golaz A, Akey B (2000) Toxigenic Corynebacterium diphtheriae associated with an equine wound infection. J Vet Diagn Invest 12(3):253–257

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hirata R, Pereira GA, Filardy AA, Gomes DL, Damasco PV, Rosa AC, Nagao PE, Pimenta FP, Mattos-Guaraldi AL (2008) Potential pathogenic role of aggregative-adhering Corynebacterium diphtheriae of different clonal groups in endocarditis. Braz J Med Biol Res 41:986–991

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Höfler W (1991) Cutaneous diphtheria. Int J Dermatol 30(12):845–847

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Holmes RK (2000) Biology and molecular epidemiology of diphtheria toxin and the tox gene. J Infect Dis 181(Suppl 1):S156–S167

    Google Scholar 

  • Honma Y, Yoshii Y, Watanabe Y, Aoki N, Komiya T, Iwaki M, Arai H, Arakawa Y, Takahashi M, Kimura H (2009) A case of afebrile pneumonia caused by non-toxigenic Corynebacterium diphtheriae. Jpn J Infect Dis 62(4):327–329

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Isaac-Renton JL, Boyko WJ, Chan R, Crichton E (1981) Corynebacterium diphtheriae septicemia. Am J Clin Pathol 75(4):631–634

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Iwaki M, Komiya T, Yamamoto A, Ishiwa A, Nagata N, Arakawa Y, Takahashi M (2010) Genome organization and pathogenicity of Corynebacterium diphtheriae C7(-) and PW8 strains. Infect Immun 78(9):3791–3800

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • John TJ (2008) Resurgence of diphtheria in India in the 21st century. J Med Res 128:668–670

    Google Scholar 

  • Klebs E (1883) Über Diphtherie. Verh Cong Inn Med 2:139–154

    Google Scholar 

  • Kline MW, Kaplan SL (1998) Infections, immunizations, and principles of antimicrobial therapy. In: Garon A, Bricker JT, Fisher DJ, Neish SR (eds) The Science and practice of pediatric cardiology. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, pp 2856–2857

    Google Scholar 

  • Kneen R, Pham NG, Solomon T, Tran TM, Nguyen TT, Tran BL, Wain J, Day NP, Tran TH, Parry CM, White NJ (1998) Penicillin vs. erythromycin in the treatment of diphtheria. Clin Infect Dis 27(4):845–850

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kwantes W (1984) Diphtheria in Europe. J Hyg (Lond) 93(3):433–437

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leggett BA, De Zoysa A, Abbott YE, Leonard N, Markey B, Efstratiou A (2010) Toxigenic Corynebacterium diphtheriae isolated from a wound in a horse. Vet Rec 166(21):656–657

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levy FM (1975) The 50th anniversary of diphtheria and tetanus immunization. Prev Med 4(2):226–237

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Liebow AA, Maclean PD, Bumstead JM (1946) Tropical ulcers and cutaneous diphtheria. Arch Intern Med (Chic) 78:255–295

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Livingood CS, Perry DJ, Forrester JS (1946) Cutaneous diphtheria; a report of 140 cases. J Invest Dermatol 7(6):341–364

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Loeffler F (1884) Untersuchungen über die Bedeutung der Mikroorganismen für die Entstehung der Diphtherie beim Menschen, bei der Taube und beim Kalbe. Mitt Klein Gesundheitsamte Berlin 2:421–499

    Google Scholar 

  • Lord JM, Smith DC, Roberts LM (1999) Toxin entry: how bacterial proteins get into mammalian cells. Cell Microbiol 1(2):85–91

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lowe CF, Bernard KA, Romney MG (2011) Cutaneous diphtheria in the urban poor population of Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada: a 10-year review. J Clin Microbiol 49(7):2664–2666

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MacGregor RR (1995) Corynebacterium diphtheriae. In: Mandell GL, Douglas JE, Dolin R (eds) Principles and practice of infectious diseases. 4th edn. Churchill Livingston, New York, pp 1866–1869

    Google Scholar 

  • Marston CK, Jamieson F, Cahoon F, Lesiak G, Golaz A, Reeves M, Popovic T (2001) Persistence of a distinct Corynebacterium diphtheriae clonal group within two communities in the United States and Canada where diphtheria is endemic. J Clin Microbiol 39(4):1586–1590

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mattos-Guaraldi AL, Sampaio JL, Santos CS, Pimenta FP, Pereira GA, Pacheco LG, Miyoshi A, Azevedo V, Moreira LO, Gutierrez FL, Costa JL, Costa-Filho R, Damasco PV, Camello TC, Hirata Jr R (2008) First detection of Corynebacterium ulcerans producing a diphtheria-like toxin in a case of human with pulmonary infection in the Rio de Janeiro metropolitan area, Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 103(4):396–400

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mishra B, Dignan RJ, Hughes CF, Hendel N (2005) Corynebacterium diphtheriae endocarditis—surgery for some but not all!. Asian Cardiovasc Thorac Ann 13(2):119–126

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mokrousov I (2009) Corynebacterium diphtheriae: genome diversity, population structure and genotyping perspectives. Infect Genet Evol 9(1):1–15

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy JR (1996) Corynebacterium diphtheriae. In: Baron S (ed) Medical Microbiology. 4th edn. University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Galveston, pp 99–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray K, Noble M (1985) In vitro studies on the comparative sensitivities of cells of the central nervous system to diphtheria toxin. J Neurol Sci 70(3):283–293

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muttaiyah S, Best EJ, Freeman JT, Taylor SL, Morris AJ, Roberts SA (2011) Corynebacterium diphtheriae endocarditis: a case series and review of the treatment approach. Int J Infect Dis 15(9):e584–e588

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naglich JG, Metherall JE, Russell DW, Eidels L (1992) Expression cloning of a diphtheria toxin receptor: identity with a heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor precursor. Cell 69(6):1051–1061

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Neal SE, Efstratiou A (2009) International external quality assurance for laboratory diagnosis of diphtheria. J Clin Microbiol 47(12):4037–4042

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nureki S, Miyazaki E, Matsuno O, Takenaka R, Ando M, Kumamoto T, Nakano T, Ohkusu K, Ezaki T (2007) Corynebacterium ulcerans infection of the lung mimicking the histology of Churg-Strauss syndrome. Chest 131(4):1237–1239

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pappenheimer AM Jr (1977) Diphtheria toxin. Annu Rev Biochem 46:69–94

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Park WH, Williams AW (1896) The production of diphtheria toxin. J Exp Med 1:164–185

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pereira GA, Pimenta FP, Santos FR, Damasco PV, Hirata Junior R, Mattos-Guaraldi AL (2008) Antimicrobial resistance among Brazilian Corynebacterium diphtheriae strains. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 103(5):507–510

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perles Z, Nir A, Cohen E, Bashary A, Engelhard D (2000) Atrioventricular block in a toxic child: do not forget diphtheria. Pediatr Cardiol 21(3):282–283

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Popovic T, Mazurova IK, Efstratiou A, Vuopio-Varkila J, Reeves MW, De Zoysa A, Glushkevich T, Grimont P (2000) Molecular epidemiology of diphtheria. J Infect Dis 181(Suppl 1):S168–177

    Google Scholar 

  • Puliti M, von Hunolstein C, Marangi M, Bistoni F, Tissi L (2006) Experimental model of infection with non-toxigenic strains of Corynebacterium diphtheriae and development of septic arthritis. J Med Microbiol 55(Pt 2):229–235

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Riegel P, Ruimy R, de Briel D, Prevost G, Jehl F, Christen R, Monteil H (1995) Taxonomy of Corynebacterium diphtheriae and related taxa, with recognition of Corynebacterium ulcerans sp. nov. nom. rev. FEMS Microbiol Lett 126(3):271–276

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Romney MG, Roscoe DL, Bernard K, Lai S, Efstratiou A, Clarke AM (2006) Emergence of an invasive clone of nontoxigenic Corynebacterium diphtheriae in the urban poor population of Vancouver, Canada. J Clin Microbiol 44(5):1625–1629

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roush SW, Murphy TV (2007) Historical comparisons of morbidity and mortality for vaccine-preventable diseases in the United States. JAMA 298(18):2155–2163

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roux E, Yersin A (1888) Contribution à l’etude de la diphtérie. Annales de l’Insitut Pasteur 2:629–661

    Google Scholar 

  • Schuhegger R, Lindermayer M, Kugler R, Heesemann J, Busch U, Sing A (2008) Detection of toxigenic Corynebacterium diphtheriae and Corynebacterium ulcerans strains by a novel real-time PCR. J Clin Microbiol 46(8):2822–2823

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shashikala P, Reddy PV, Prashanth K, Kanungo R, Devi S, Anitha P, Rajarajeshweri N, Cherian TM (2011) Persistence of nontoxigenic Corynebacterium diphtheriae biotype gravis strains in Pondicherry, Southern India. J Clin Microbiol 49(2):763–764

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sing A, Berger A, Schneider-Brachert W, Holzmann T, Reischl U (2011) Rapid detection and molecular differentiation of toxigenic Corynebacterium diphtheriae and Corynebacterium ulcerans strains by LightCycler PCR. J Clin Microbiol 49(7):2485–2489

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sykes JE, Mapes S, Lindsay LL, Samitz E, Byrne BA (2010) Corynebacterium ulcerans bronchopneumonia in a dog. J Vet Intern Med 24(4):973–976

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tiwari TS, Golaz A, Yu DT, Ehresmann KR, Jones TF, Hill HE, Cassiday PK, Pawloski LC, Moran JS, Popovic T, Wharton M (2008) Investigations of 2 cases of diphtheria-like illness due to toxigenic Corynebacterium ulcerans. Clin Infect Dis 46(3):395–401

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vitek CR (2006) Diphtheria. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 304:71–94

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • von Behring EA, Kitosato S (1890) Über das Zustandekommen der Diphtherie-Immunität und der Tetanus-Immunität bei Thieren. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 16:113–114

    Google Scholar 

  • von Hunolstein C, Rota MC, Alfarone G, Ricci ML, Salmaso S (2000) Diphtheria antibody levels in the Italian Population. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 19(6):433–437

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner J, Ignatius R, Voss S, Höpfner V, Ehlers S, Funke G, Weber U, Hahn H (2001) Infection of the skin caused by Corynebacterium ulcerans and mimicking classical cutaneous diphtheria. Clin Infect Dis 33(9):1598–1600

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner KS, White JM, Crowcroft NS, De Martin S, Mann G, Efstratiou A (2010) Diphtheria in the United Kingdom, 1986–2008: the increasing role of Corynebacterium ulcerans. Epidemiol Infect 138(11):1519–1530

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wagner KS, White JM, Neal S, Crowcroft NS, Kupreviciene N, Paberza R, Lucenko I, Joks U, Akbas E, Alexandrou-Athanassoulis H, Detcheva A, Vuopio J, von Hunolstein C, Murphy PG, Andrews N, Efstratiou A (2011) Screening for Corynebacterium diphtheriae and Corynebacterium ulcerans in patients with upper respiratory tract infections 2007–2008: a multicentre European study. Clin Microbiol Infect 17(4):519–525

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zasada AA, Baczewska-Rej M, Wardak S (2010) An increase in non-toxigenic Corynebacterium diphtheriae infections in Poland—molecular epidemiology and antimicrobial susceptibility of strains isolated from past outbreaks and those currently circulating in Poland. Int J Infect Dis 14(10):e907–e912

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zuber PL, Gruner E, Altwegg M, von Graevenitz A (1992) Invasive infection with non-toxigenic Corynebacterium diphtheriae among drug users. Lancet 339(8805):1359

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The author’s work was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (SFB796, B5). Help with the manuscript and preparation of Fig. 1.1 by S. Morbach (Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg) is gratefully acknowledged.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany

    Andreas Burkovski

Authors
  1. Andreas Burkovski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Andreas Burkovski .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Friedrich-Alexander-Universität, Erlangen, Bayern, Germany

    Andreas Burkovski

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht (outside the USA)

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Burkovski, A. (2014). Diphtheria and its Etiological Agents. In: Burkovski, A. (eds) Corynebacterium diphtheriae and Related Toxigenic Species. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7624-1_1

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation