Skip to main content

I Die, Therefore I Am: The Pursuit of Meaning in the Light of Death

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover The Experience of Meaning in Life

Abstract

In this chapter we discuss how individuals can find a personal sense of meaning after confronting their own mortality. We assert that the pursuit of personal meaning can take one of two divergent paths depending on how the individual construes death. Specifically, we predict that thinking about death in an abstract and unspecified manner, in which an individual is able to deny the reality of death, leads to defensive attempts to seek meaning from symbolic sources that are external to the self. Alternatively, we predict that thinking about death in a specific and individuated manner, in which individuals consider their death as an experiential reality, leads to authentic, open, and more intrinsic strivings toward personal meaning. We review empirical evidence in support of these divergent paths of meaning in the context of altruism, creativity, psychological needs, values, and the motivation to pursue (or escape from) freedom.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Arndt J, Greenberg J, Simon L, Pyszczynski T, Solomon S (1998) Terror management and self-awareness: evidence that mortality salience provokes avoidance of the self-focused state. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 24:1216–1227

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arndt J, Greenberg J, Solomon S, Pyszczynski T, Schimel J (1999) Creativity and terror management: the effects of creative activity on guilt and social projection following mortality salience. J Pers Soc Psychol 77:19–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arndt J, Greenberg J, Cook A (2002) Mortality salience and the spreading activation of worldview-relevant constructs: exploring the cognitive architecture of terror management. J Exp Psychol Gen 131:307–324

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arndt J, Routledge C, Greenberg J, Sheldon KM (2005) Illuminating the dark side of creative expression: assimilation needs and the consequences of creative action following mortality salience. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 31:1327–1339

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baumeister RF (1991) Meanings of life. Guilford Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker E (1973) The denial of death. Free Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Becker E (1975) Escape from evil. Free Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Blackie LER, Cozzolino PJ (2011a) Of blood and death: a test of dual-existential systems in the context of prosocial intentions. Psychol Sci 22:998–1000

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blackie LER, Cozzolino PJ (2011b) Activating differential needs and values as a function of mortality awareness. Unpublished manuscript

    Google Scholar 

  • Brewer MB (1988) A dual process model of impression formation. In: Wyer RS, Srull TK (eds) Advances in social cognition, vol 1. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, pp 1–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Brewer MB (1991) The social self: on being the same and different at the same time. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 17:475–482

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calhoun LG, Tedeschi RG (2001) Posttraumatic growth: the positive lessons of loss. In: Neimeyer RA (ed) Meaning reconstruction and the experience of loss. American Psychological Association, Washington, DC, pp 157–172

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Conover S (2011) An interview with Sheldon Solomon. PhD on terror. Retrieved May 18, 2011, from the World Wide Web: http://EzineArticles.com/6151167

  • Cozzolino PJ (2006) Death contemplation, growth, and defense: converging evidence of dual-existential systems? Psychol Inq 17:278–287

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cozzolino PJ, Staples AD, Meyers LS, Samboceti J (2004) Greed, death, and values: from terror management to “transcendence management” theory. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 30:278–292

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cozzolino PJ, Sheldon KM, Schachtman TR, Meyers LS (2009) Limited time perspective, values, and greed: imagining a limited future reduces avarice in extrinsic people. J Res Pers 43:399–408

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cozzolino PJ, Blackie LER, Rentzelas P, Geeraert N, Meyers LS (2013) In pursuit of existential liberty: differential effects of mortality salience and death reflection on desires for freedom (Manuscript submitted for publication)

    Google Scholar 

  • Deci EL, Ryan RM (2000) The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychol Inq 11:227–268

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fiske ST, Neuberg SL (1990) A continuum of impression formation, from category-based to individuating processes: influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. In: Zanna MP (ed) Advances in experimental social psychology, vol 23. Academic Press, New York, pp 1–74

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiske ST, Lin M, Neuberg SL (1999) The continuum model: ten years later. In: Chaiken S, Trope Y (eds) Dual-process theories in social psychology. Guilford, New York, pp 231–254

    Google Scholar 

  • Florian V, Mikulincer M (2004) A multifaceted perspective on the existential meanings, manifestations, and consequences of the fear of personal death. In: Greenberg J, Koole SL, Pyszcynski T (eds) Handbook of experimental existential psychology. Guilford Press, New York, pp 54–70

    Google Scholar 

  • Forster EM (1910) Howard’s end. Edward Arnold, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankl VE (1984) Man’s search for meaning (Revised and updated). Washington Square Press/Pocket Books, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankl VE (1988) The will to meaning. New American Library, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Frias A, Watkins PC, Webber AC, Froh JJ (2011) Death and gratitude: death reflection enhances gratitude. J Posit Psychol 6:154–162

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman R, Förster J (2001) The effects of promotion and prevention cues on creativity. J Pers Soc Psychol 81:1001–1013

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman RS, Förster J (2005) Effects of motivational cues on perceptual asymmetry: implications for creativity and analytical problem solving. J Pers Soc Psychol 88:263–275

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fromm E (2001) The fear of freedom. Routledge Classics, London (Original work published 1941)

    Google Scholar 

  • Gailliot MT, Sillman TF, Schmeichel BJ, Maner JK, Plant EA (2008) Mortality salience increases adherence to salient norms and values. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 34:993–1003

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goldenberg JL, Pyszczynski T, Greenberg J, Solomon S, Kluck B, Cornwell R (2001) I am not an animal: mortality salience, disgust, and the denial of human creatureliness. J Exp Psychol Gen 130:427–435

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg J, Pyszczynski T, Solomon S (1986) The causes and consequences of the need for self-esteem: a terror management theory. In: Baumeister RF (ed) Public self and private self. Springer, New York, pp 189–212

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg J, Pyszczynski T, Solomon S, Simon L, Breus M (1994) Role of consciousness and accessibility of death-related thoughts in mortality salience effects. J Pers Soc Psychol 67:627–637

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haier RJ, Siegel BV, MacLachlan A, Soderling E, Lottenberg S, Buchsbaum MS (1992) Regional glucose metabolic changes after learning a complex visuospatial/motor task: a positron emission tomographic study. Brain Res 570:134–143

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haier RJ, Karama S, Leyba L, Jung RE (2009) MRI assessment of cortical thickness and functional activity changes in adolescent girls following three months of practice on a visual-spatial task. BMC Res Notes 2:174

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Higgins ET (1997) Beyond pleasure and pain. Am Psychol 52:1280–1300

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hirschberger G, Ein-Dor T, Almakias S (2008) The self-protective altruist: terror management and the ambivalent nature of prosocial behavior. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 34:666–678

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jobs S (2005) How to live before you die. Speech presented at location of speech, Stanford

    Google Scholar 

  • Joireman J, Duell B (2005) Mother Teresa versus Ebenezer Scrooge: mortality salience leads proselfs to endorse self-transcendent values (unless proselfs are reassured). Pers Soc Psychol Bull 31:307–320

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jonas E, Schimel J, Greenberg J, Pyszczynski T (2002) The scrooge effect: evidence that mortality salience increases prosocial attitudes and behavior. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 28:1342–1353

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kasser T, Sheldon KM (2000) Of wealth and death: materialism, mortality salience, and consumption behavior. Psychol Sci 11:348–351

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keller J, Blomann F (2008) Locus of control and the flow experience: an experimental analysis. Eur J Pers 22:589–607

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kitayama S, Duffy S, Kawamura T, Larsen JT (2003) A cultural look at new look: perceiving an object and its context in two cultures. Psychol Sci 14:201–206

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kunda Z (1999) Social cognition: making sense of people. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsolek CJ (1999) Dissociable neural subsystems underlie abstract and specific object recognition. Psychol Sci 10:111–118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marsolek CJ (2004) Abstractionist versus exemplar-based theories of visual word priming: a subsystems resolution. Q J Exp Psychol 57:1233–1259

    Google Scholar 

  • Marsolek CJ, Field JE (1999) Perceptual-motor sequence learning of general regularities and specific sequences. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 25:815–836

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson LJ, Moore DL, Olivetti J, Scott T (1997) General and personal mortality salience and nationalistic bias. Pers Soc Psychol Bull 23:884–892

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Niemiec C, Cozzolino PJ, Vansteenkiste M, Deci E (2007) Forms of death contemplation and the self-regulation of prosocial behavior: a comparison of mortality salience and death reflection. Poster presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Memphis

    Google Scholar 

  • Noyes R (1980) Attitude change following near-death experiences. Psychiatry 43:234–242

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pyszczynksi T, Greenberg J, Solomon S, Arndt J, Schimel J (2004) Why do people need self-esteem?: a theoretical and empirical review. Psychol Bull 130:435–468

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reker GT (2000) Theoretical perspective, dimensions, and measurement of existential meaning. In: Reker GT, Chamberlain K (eds) Exploring existential meaning: optimizing human development across the life span. Sage, Thousand Oaks, pp 39–55

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ring K (1984) Heading toward omega: in search of the meaning of the near-death experience. Morrow, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Ring K, Elsaesser Valarino E (1998) Lessons from the light: what we can learn from the near-death experience. Perseus, Cambridge, MA

    Google Scholar 

  • Routledge C, Arndt J, Vess M, Sheldon KM (2008) The life and death of creativity: the effects of mortality salience on self and social directed creative expression. Motiv Emot 32:331–338

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schimel J, Simon L, Greenberg J, Pyszczynski T, Solomon S, Waxmonsky J et al (1999) Stereotypes and terror management: evidence that mortality salience enhances stereotypic thinking and preferences. J Pers Soc Psychol 77:905–926

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz SH (1992) Universals in the content and structure of values: theory and empirical tests in 20 countries. In: Zanna M (ed) Advances in experimental social psychology, vol 25. Academic, New York, pp 1–65

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz SH (2005) Basic human values: their content and structure across countries. In: Tamayo A, Porto JB (eds) Valores e comportamento nas organizações [Values and behavior in organizations]. Vozes, Petrópolis, pp 21–55

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz SH (2006) Les valeurs de base de la personne: Théorie, mesures et applications [Basic human values: theory, measurement, and applications]. Revue française de sociologie 42:249–288

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz SH, Bilsky W (1987) Toward a universal psychological structure of human values. J Pers Soc Psychol 53:550–562

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz SH, Boehnke K (2004) Evaluating the structure of human values with confirmatory factor analysis. J Res Pers 38:230–255

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz SH, Sagiv L (1995) Identifying culture specifics in the content and structure of values. J Cross Cult Psychol 26:92–116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon S, Greenberg J, Pyszczynski T (2004) The cultural animal: twenty years of terror management theory and research. In: Greenberg J, Koole SL, Pyszcynski T (eds) Handbook of experimental existential psychology. Guilford Press, New York, pp 13–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Steger MF (2011) Meaning in life. In: Lopez SJ (ed) Handbook of positive psychology, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Steger MF (2012) Experiencing meaning in life: optimal functioning at the nexus of well-being, psychopathology, and spirituality. In: Wong PTP, Fry PS (eds) The human quest for meaning, 2nd edn. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah

    Google Scholar 

  • Steger MF, Frazier P, Oishi S, Kaler M (2006) The meaning in life questionnaire: assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life. J Couns Psychol 53:80–93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steger MF, Oishi S, Kashdan TB (2009) Meaning in life across the life span: levels and correlates of meaning in life from emerging adulthood to older adulthood. J Posit Psychol 4:43–52

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stroop JR (1935) Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. J Exp Psychol 28:643–662

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tajfel H (1982) Social psychology of intergroup relations. Annu Rev Psychol 33:1–39

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tajfel H, Turner JC (1979) An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In: Austin WG, Worchel S (eds) The social psychology of intergroup relations. Brooks/Cole, Monterey, pp 33–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Tajfel H, Turner JC (1986) The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In: Worchel S, Austin WG (eds) Psychology of intergroup relations, 2nd edn. Nelson-Hall, Chicago, pp 7–24

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner JC, Hogg MA, Oakes PJ, Reicher SD, Wetherell MS (1987) Rediscovering the social group: a self-categorization theory. Basil Blackwell, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Westerberg CE, Marsolek CJ (2003) Hemispheric asymmetries in memory processes as measured in a false recognition paradigm. Cortex 39:627–642

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yalom ID (1980) Existential psychotherapy. Basic Books, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Zárate MA, Sanders JD, Garza AA (2000) Neurological disassociations of social perception processes. Soc Cognit 18:223–251

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Philip J. Cozzolino .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Cozzolino, P.J., Blackie, L.E.R. (2013). I Die, Therefore I Am: The Pursuit of Meaning in the Light of Death. In: Hicks, J., Routledge, C. (eds) The Experience of Meaning in Life. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6527-6_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics