Abstract
This chapter distinguishes four phases in the reception of phenomenology among French academic philosophers between 1910, when Husserl’s work was first mentioned in a French publication, and Husserl’s death in 1938 and the outbreak of World War II the following year—the period that Herbert Spiegelberg has called the “receptive phase” of the French phenomenological movement. Following Husserl’s own lead, French academic philosophers interpreted phenomenology as representing a continuation of the Cartesian tradition. This trend is shown through the discussion of essays published by the eight thinkers who did the most to introduce Husserlian phenomenology to French philosophical circles prior to 1939. In order to organize and highlight their variously nuanced interpretations of phenomenology, they are grouped into contemporaneous pairs representing four distinct phases in the awareness and appreciation of Husserlian phenomenology among French philosophers: Léon Noel and Victor Delbos , who introduced Husserl as a combatant against psychologism ; Lev Shestov and Jean Hering , who debated the Platonic and idealist character of phenomenology; Bernard Groethuysen and Georges Gurvitch , who offered popularizing accounts of phenomenology against the backdrop of contemporary German philosophy; and the original appropriations of phenomenology by Emmanuel Levinas and Jean-Paul Sartre . Where appropriate in the overall chronological framework of the chapter, other relevant events are introduced, such as the publication of Husserl’s own works, visits by Husserl and Scheler to France, and translations of essays by German phenomenologists, including Heidegger . A concluding section calls attention to the contributions of a few other scholars not mentioned elsewhere in the chapter.
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- 1.
For a detailed account of the rescue Husserl’s papers from Nazi Germany and the establishment of the Husserl Archives, see Van Breda (1959).
- 2.
- 3.
- 4.
- 5.
See the “Préface” to Andler (1912). Delbos ’s essay, “Husserl, sa critique du psychologisme et sa conception d’une logique pure,” was first published in the Revue de métaphysique et de morale (1911) and reprinted in Andler’s volume (25–42). For the purposes of citation, the pagination of the original publication will be followed below.
- 6.
Delbos (1911, 686). Cf. Wundt (1910). Wundt (1832–1920) was the prominent founder of experimental psychology. In this late article, he argues against both psychologism and logicism, yet his attack upon the latter is especially vehement. If Delbos followed Wundt in regarding Husserl’s work as an example of logicism, he did so with evidently higher esteem, although he reiterates some of Wundt ’s criticisms. For Husserl’s comments on Wundt ’s essay, see Husserl (1975, 52–55).
- 7.
Neither Noël nor Delbos cites any of the half dozen or so articles that Husserl published between 1891 and 1900.
- 8.
Noël does not recognize Stumpf ’s independent use of the term phenomenology after 1904 to designate the initial phase of all scientific research, namely the description, by experimental means or otherwise, of the contents of experience; see Spiegelberg (1982, 51–65). Regarding Husserl’s own distinction of phenomenology from descriptive psychology, compare “Note 3” in the first and second editions of the Logical Investigations , “Introduction to Volume II,” §6 (1970b, 1:262).
- 9.
See Delbos (1911, 697), where he sums up what Husserl means by phenomenology as follows: “elle est une description et une analyse de ces événements qui sont la représentation, le jugement, la connaissance; elle doit occuper un domaine neutre entre la psychologie, qui vise l’explication causale et génétique de ces événements, et la logique pure, qui s’occupe des lois idéales; mais elle s’applique surtout à suivre et à analyser les opérations qui permettent à ces lois d’être posées.” As one of the collaborators in the Société de philosophie française involved in the production of the Vocabulaire technique et critique de la philosophie, Delbos probably help to craft the definition of “phénoménologie” that it contains: “Étude descriptive d’un ensemble de phénomènes, tels qu’ils se manifestent dans le temps ou l’espace, par opposition soit aux lois abstraites et fixes de ces phénomènes;—soit aux réalités transcendantes dont ils sont la manifestation;—soit à la critique normative de leur légitimité” (Lalande 1928, 2:581, s.v. “Phénoménologie”).
- 10.
See Husserl, Logical Investigations , Investigation V, §8 (1970b, 2:550).
- 11.
See Husserl, Logical Investigations , Investigation V, §8, “Additional Note to the Second Edition” (1970b, 2:551).
- 12.
See Spiegelberg (1976b).
- 13.
Husserl collaborated with Heinrich Rickert on launching Logos in 1910. The first issue contained Husserl’s essay “Philosophie als strenge Wissenschaft”; see Husserl (1910–1911). A French translation was published in 1955 (Husserl 1955) and an English translation in 1965 (Husserl (1965) and Husserl (1981)).
- 14.
See Husserl, Logical Investigations , Investigation VI, Chap. 6, “Sensuous and Categorial Intuitions,” especially §§40–48 (1970b, 773–795).
- 15.
Huisman (1984, s.v. “Delbos , Victor”). Cf. (Parodi 1919, iii–iv). A particularly interesting essay that documents the shift of French interest away from German philosophy to its own traditions is Boutroux (1916). Also, Boutroux (1927, 184–185) discusses universalism as a characteristic theme of French philosophy.
- 16.
Huisman (1984, s.v. “Chestov, Léon”). Note that the French spelling of Shestov name differs from the English; for the purposes of this dissertation, the English spelling will be used in all references and citations. Shestov also inspired critic Benjamin Fondane , who published in 1936 a collection of literary essays on contemporary philosophers, including Husserl, Heidegger , Kierkegaard , and Shestov . See Sect. 3.5.5 in the conclusion to this chapter and Fondane (1936).
- 17.
- 18.
- 19.
- 20.
- 21.
Cf. Shestov (1926, 38, 44, 56).
- 22.
See Spiegelberg (1982, 696).
- 23.
A German version of Hering ’s essay was also published the same year in the second volume of Philosophischer Anzeiger; see Hering (1927b) and note 29 below.
- 24.
In a footnote, Hering admits that his assurance on this point derives more from Husserl’s course lectures than his publications, although he does cite Sects. §58 and §51 of Ideas for support. Cf. Hering (1926, 83–86), where he rejects, however, the ontological implications of Husserl’s interpretation of consciousness in §49 of Ideas .
- 25.
Hering apparently leaves the reader to infer that if phenomenology ultimately leads to a metaphysics, it will be because Husserl’s doctrine of intentionality affirms that the mind grasps objects in their very mode of being.
- 26.
The Alcan edition is a reprint of the original publication of Hering ’s thesis for the Faculty of Protestant Theology at the University of Strasbourg (Hering 1925).
- 27.
Hering quotes here a line from Husserl’s preface to the first volume of his Jahrbuch für Philosophie und phänomenologische Forschung (Husserl 1913). My translation follows more closely the original German, which Hering quotes in a footnote: “dass nur durch Rückgang auf die originären Quellen der Anschauung und auf die aus ihr zu schöpfenden Wesenseinsichten die grossen Traditionen der Philosophie.” Hering ’s French paraphrase (“… c’est de creuser jusqu’aux sources primordiales de l’intuition et d’y puiser les évidences d’ordre essentiel”) may be rendered in English as “… to dig down to the primordial springs of intuition and to draw from them the evidences of essential order.”
- 28.
Hering ’s remarks comparing Bergsonism and phenomenology at the end of Part II of his monograph have already been referred to in Chap. 1.
- 29.
That Shestov referred to the title of Hering ’s response as “sub specie aeternitatis” instead of “sub specie aeterni” likely indicates that Shestov read the German version published in Philosophischer Anzeiger instead of the French version published in Revue d’histoire et de philosophie réligieuse; see note 23 above.
- 30.
See Hering (1927a, 363n5).
- 31.
“sans vision intuitive (anschauunggebende Akte) et immediate de ce qui est donné.” Hering here refers to Husserl, Logical Investigations , Investigation VI, §§ 36–52 (1970b, 2:760–802).
- 32.
My translation of Hering ’s citation of Husserl. Cf. Husserl, Ideas , §24 (1931, 92): “that every originary presentive intuition is a legitimizing source of cognition, that everything originarily (so to speak in its “personal actuality”) offered to us in “intuition” is to be accepted simply as what it is presented as being, but also only within the limits in which it is presented there” (emphasis Husserl’s).
- 33.
See Shestov (1940, 11).
- 34.
See Hering (1926, 43).
- 35.
Spiegelberg (1982, 441) attributes this tendency to historical coincidence, noting the belated spurt of French interest in Hegel beginning in the late 1920s (a neo-Hegelian movement had been underway in Europe since around 1910). Spiegelberg also notes the influence of the Russian Marxist Alexandre Kojève , whose interpretation of the Hegelian method as essentially descriptive and non-dialectical enabled him to identify it with Husserlian phenomenology. While I do not disagree with Spiegelberg’s argument, I simply would add one more factor. See also Lyotard (1992, 40–44).
- 36.
See Shestov (1927, 38): “Husserl avait posé la question: il n’y a pas d’autre issue; il faut choisir entre la philosophie et la sagesse, mais celle-ci a fini son temps, tout comme l’astrologie et l’alchimie.” Elsewhere in this article Shestov makes explicit reference to Hegel (cf. 49, 69).
- 37.
See especially pp. 5, 32.
- 38.
See Huisman (1984, s.v. “Groethuysen , Bernard”).
- 39.
Husserl charged those of his students who applied phenomenological techniques of description unreservedly to objects of any sort with practicing a “Bilderbuchphänomenologie,” i.e., picture book phenomenology. See Spiegelberg (1982, 168).
- 40.
One is reminded here of the “spiritualist positivism ” (positivisme spiritualiste) that Ravaisson prophesied would become the dominant current of French philosophy by the end of the nineteenth century (see Chap. 2.1.3).
- 41.
Nature et formes de la sympathie. Contribution à l’étude des lois de la vie émotionnelle (1928) is the French translation of Scheler ’s Wesen und Formen der Sympathie. Der “Phänomenologie der Sympathiegefühle” (1923), which represents an expanded version of Zur Phänomenologie und Theorie der Sympathiegefühle und von Liebe und Hass: Mit einem Anhang über den Grund zur Anahme der Existenz des fremden ich (1913). An English translation of Wesen und Formen der Sympathie was published under the title The Nature of Sympathy (1954). A second volume, containing French translations of related essays, appeared under the title Le sens de la souffrance, suivi de deux autres essais (1936).
- 42.
- 43.
See Spiegelberg (1982, 432).
- 44.
See Leroux (1994, 332–355, especially 336).
- 45.
Emmanuel Levinas , “Avertissement,” in Husserl (1947, v).
- 46.
Husserl lectured in German, but for the benefit of his French-speaking audience a short syllabus in translation was printed and circulated. Stephan Strasser’s reconstruction of the original text of Husserl’s lectures from early versions of manuscripts for the eventual Méditations cartésiennes, together with German and French versions of his syllabus, are included in Husserl (1950). A translation of Strasser’s reconstructed text with an introduction by Peter Koestenbaum has been published as Husserl (1967). In addition, a translation of the syllabus with an introduction by Herbert Spiegelberg may be found in Spiegelberg (1976a). In his introduction to Husserl (1950), Strasser notes that Husserl had already experimented with linking his approach to the Cartesian method of doubt in Ideas (cf. §31; Husserl (1931, 107)) and in some of his unpublished manuscripts.
- 47.
Hering (1926, 83n85): “Quant à l’intuitivisme de N. Losskij, il présente également quelques analogies avec la phénoménologie. Comme elle, le penseur russe rejette toute théorie de la connaissance qui invente de mythiques copies ou images subjectives de l’objet; comme elle, il affirme nettement le caractère transubjectif de l’acte de la connaissance. Mais les ressemblances s’arrêtent là. Notamment sa définition de la connaissance comme d’un événement de la conscience comparé à d’autres, s’inspire d’une conception absolument différente de celle de l’intentionalisme des phénoménologues.”
- 48.
For background on Gurvitch ’s courses at the Sorbonne , see Gurvitch (1930, 4, 9). Gurvitch published several articles in French on Russian philosophers during the 1920s, including “La philosophie russe du premier quart du XXe siècle” (Gurvitch (1926)). For biographical information on Gurvitch , see Huisman (1984, s.v. “Gurvitch , Georges”).
- 49.
A second edition appeared in 1949.
- 50.
See also the preface to Gurvitch ’s volume by Léon Brunschvicg , 3, and my discussion of Brunschvicg in Chap. 2.
- 51.
Cf. Hering (1926, 78–83).
- 52.
Spiegelberg (1982, 441–442) attributes this tendency on the one hand to the coincidence of an overdue spurt of interest in Hegel in France during the late 1920s, and on the other to the Russian Marxist Alexandre Kojève , whose interpretation of the Hegelian method as essentially descriptive and non-dialectical enabled him to identify it with Husserlian phenomenology. See also Lyotard (1992, 40–44).
- 53.
See Brunschvicg (1897).
- 54.
Note: Les tendances actuelles contains alternative spellings of Wesensschau, usually Wesenschau , but sometimes Wesenchau, evidently a typographical error.
- 55.
- 56.
Gurvitch (1924) had recently published an important study of Fichte .
- 57.
See Husserl (1931, §58; 174): “… What concerns us here, after merely touching on the different groupings of such rational grounds for the existence of a ‘divine’ Being beyond the world, is that this existence should not only transcend the world, but obviously also the ‘absolute’ Consciousness. It would thus be an ‘Absolute’ in a totally different sense from the Absolute of Consciousness, as on the other hand it would be transcendent in a totally different sense from the transcendent in the sense of the world” (emphasis Husserl’s).
- 58.
In fact, he refers to the essay only twice: once in a chronology of Husserl’s works and a second time in a footnote as evidence of Husserl’s anti-Hegelianism; see Gurvitch (1930, 27 and 21n3).
- 59.
See Waldenfels (1983, 36).
- 60.
For a detailed reflection on the French reception of Scheler ’s hierarchical theory of values from Gurvitch to Ricoeur, see Leroux (1994).
- 61.
See Spiegelberg (1982, 268–269).
- 62.
As noted above, the short monograph that Scheler dedicated to its study became the first phenomenological work to be translated into French.
- 63.
Cf. Lask (1923, 2:1–282).
- 64.
Cf. the sections below on Levinas and Sartre .
- 65.
Recall that a failure to give adequate attention to the irrational was one of Gurvitch ’s main criticisms of Husserl.
- 66.
Note that the expression reveals Gurvitch ’s negative assessment of Heidegger ’s attempt to go beyond this Kantian impasse.
- 67.
- 68.
Levinas (1990, 291). Cf. Levinas (1992, 19–20), where he credits fellow student Gabrielle Peiffer , with whom he later shared the work of translating the Cartesian Meditations , with having first exposed him to Husserl by sharing with him a passage from the Logical Investigations . Hering is not mentioned in this context. See also Levinas (1931).
- 69.
- 70.
Cf. the discussion of Gurvitch above.
- 71.
Cf. Husserl (1931, §24; 92–93).
- 72.
Cf. Husserl (1931, §19; 83).
- 73.
As noted above, Gurvitch faulted Husserl for absolutizing what he regarded as the relative idea of the pure ego while failing to posit a transcendent Absolute, as Fichte had.
- 74.
Cf. Husserl (1931, §75; 209).
- 75.
Note that Levinas ’s proposition is similar to Lask ’s insistence that in order for ideal objects to become objects of knowledge, they must be enveloped by a categorial form, or in other words, that they must be constituted by a synthesis. So far as I can judge, however, Levinas was not influenced by Lask or any other neo-Kantian in offering this interpretation.
- 76.
Cf. Husserl (1931, §80; 234): “The meditations which we propose to follow up still further in this Section of our work [i.e., the longest section, Section 3 on the ‘Procedure of Pure Phenomenology in Respect of Methods and Problems’] will bear, by preference, on the objectively oriented aspect, as that which first presents itself when we forsake the natural standpoint.”
- 77.
Cf. Husserl (1970b, 2:675–706).
- 78.
Cf. Husserl (1931, §141; 393): “… All this may serve to indicate by way of illustration large and important groups of problems dealing with the ‘confirming’ and ‘verifying’ of immediate rational positings” (emphasis Husserl’s).
- 79.
- 80.
- 81.
- 82.
Levinas (1963, 222); Levinas (1995, 157): “Consequently, despite the revolutionary character of the phenomenological reduction , the revolution which it accomplishes is, in Husserl’s philosophy, possible only to the extent that the natural attitude is theoretical. The historical role of the reduction and the meaning of its appearance at a certain moment of existence are, for him, not even a problem.”
- 83.
Levinas (1963, 214); Levinas (1995, 150). In 1949, Ludwig Landgrebe published a series of essays under the title Phänomenologie und Metaphysik, the last of which contains his own proposal for an intersubjective reduction . It would be interesting, but obviously beyond the scope of this dissertation to compare the respective notions of Levinas and Landgrebe.
- 84.
- 85.
- 86.
- 87.
Levinas (1932). Henry Corbin ’s 1931 translation of “Was ist Metaphysik?” also included a brief introduction to Heidegger by Alexandre Koyré ; see Heidegger (1931). Although it was not accompanied by any interpretative or introductory note, it should be mentioned in this context that the inaugural issue of Recherches philosophiques published a translation of Heidegger ’s “Vom Wesen des Grundes” by A. Bessey; see Heidegger (1931–1932) and below.
- 88.
- 89.
Levinas actually uses three expressions to translate Heidegger ’s variations on Sorge (i.e., Besorge, Fürsorge, etc.): prendre soin, souci, and sollicitude, although he does not employ them with any discernible consistency. On the whole, he seems to prefer sollicitude to express the general existential notion of care.
- 90.
Heidegger (1938). Corbin ’s collection also included translations of the complete texts of “Was ist Metaphysik?,” “Vom Wesen des Grundes,” “Hölderlin und das Wesen der Dichtung,” and §§42–45 of Kant und das Problem der Metaphysik. Sections 1–44 of Sein und Zeit were translated in 1964, but a complete translation became available only in 1985.
- 91.
- 92.
Among those sources that accurately recount the details of Sartre ’s studies in Berlin , see Cohen-Solal (1987, 91–95) and Hayman (1987, 97–110). Other sources mistakenly indicate that Sartre also went to Freiburg to study with Husserl or Heidegger or both during this period or give incorrect dates for the period of his fellowship.
- 93.
See my fuller discussion of Sartre ’s early encounters and attempts to grapple with phenomenology in the corresponding sections of my dissertation (Dupont 1997, 211–236), which have been abridged here.
- 94.
- 95.
- 96.
- 97.
- 98.
- 99.
In his famous 1945 lecture, “Existentialisme est un humanisme,” Sartre (1970a, 17) classifies existentialists according to two categories: Christian existentialists, among whom he names Jaspers and Marcel , and atheistic existentialists, among whom he names Heidegger first, then the “French existentialists,” and finally himself. An English translation with an introduction by Bernard Frechtman is available as Sartre (1947).
- 100.
- 101.
- 102.
- 103.
- 104.
- 105.
See Blondel (1926) for his own remarks on the launching of the society that his own mentor, Émile Boutroux, had envisioned at the International Congress of Philosophy in 1900.
- 106.
- 107.
Husserl’s name first appeared on the list of corresponding members of the society published in Les études philosophiques in the first issue of its third year of publication in June, 1929, thus a few months following his visit to France and lectures in Paris. See also Serrus (1930a, 42), where he reports, “À la suite d’études husserliennes que j’avais eu l’honneur de présenter à la Société philosophique de Marseille, le célèbre professeur de Fribourg en Brisgau acceptait le titre de correspondant de cette Société, et nous écrivait sa joie de voir s’ouvrir à la phénoménologie la vieille cite Phocéenne: ‘Ich war überracht und hocherfreut zu ersehen dass auch Marseille eine Stätte ernst bethätigter phänomenologischer Studien ist.’ Depuis lors Edmund Husserl n’a cessé de nous prodiguer ses encouragements sous la forme d’envois de publications ou d’ouvrages; et c’est ainsi qu’il adressait au bureau de la revue dès son apparition, sa récente ‘Logique formelle et transcendantale.’”
- 108.
See Serrus (1930a), especially 129–131.
- 109.
See Berger (1945) for an editorial statement regarding the change in publisher.
- 110.
See Spiegelberg (1982, 239, 428, 431–434, 438, and 441).
- 111.
- 112.
- 113.
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Dupont, C. (2014). Four Phases in the Reception of Phenomenology in French Philosophy, 1910–1939. In: Phenomenology in French Philosophy: Early Encounters. Phaenomenologica, vol 208. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4641-1_3
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