Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

An International Perspective of the Gender Dimension in Planning for Urban Safety

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
The Urban Fabric of Crime and Fear

Abstract

The aim of this chapter is to illustrate how gender is incorporated into urban planning practices when urban safety is the main goal. The empirical material is from case studies in Austria, Finland, Sweden and the UK gathered by semi-structured interview with key actors identified through a snowball sampling procedure. The case studies focus mostly on perceived safety in public places. Although the cases differ in nature and are embedded in different contexts, safety is often promoted by interventions that deal with the characteristics of the urban environment, either at the planning stage of new housing developments or making changes to existing neighbourhood features. The cases often employ participatory schemes and safety audits even where rational planning dominates. This chapter concludes by proposing an agenda that may be of relevance to planners and practitioners dealing with safety and gender issues at the municipal level.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    Gender is used here as synonym of gender mainstreaming, which is defined by the UN (1997) as a strategy for making women’s as well as men’s concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all societal spheres, so that men and women benefit equally so inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality.

  2. 2.

    This term was first suggested in urban criminology by Ratcliffe and McCullagh (2001), referring to mismatch between crime hot spots and police perception of high-crime areas.

  3. 3.

    One of the main objectives of the European Union, however, is to eliminate inequalities and to promote gender equality throughout the European member states. For a review of the past gender policies at European level, see Damyanovic (2007).

  4. 4.

    Social housing, accounting for 25% of the Austrian housing stock, is funded by the government through income taxes, corporation taxes and ‘housing contributions’. Social housing is provided by municipalities and limited-profit housing organisations. As an example, 53% of Austrians and 17% of non-Austrians live in social housing in Vienna (Reinprecht 2007).

  5. 5.

    In cases of domestic violence, social care, hospitals, police (some have special family units to deal with domestic violence) and NGO organisations (women’s shelters, women’s support line) are activated to deal with problems. About a fourth of all cases of violence between partners are reported to the police in Sweden. About 40% of victims of violence in close relationships declare they did not receive the support they expected from society, and these numbers are particularly high among men in relation to NGO support (BRÅ 2010).

  6. 6.

    Future research should choose case studies that are similar in nature, discuss the role and demands of target groups and provide a more critical account of their failures so comparisons can be established between case studies.

  7. 7.

    It is important to note that WDS has survived for over two decades with the help of local activists and supporters, even when funding from the government was scarce.

References

  • Adolfsson, S. (2006). Regionförstoring och barnfamiljer. PLAN, 1–2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Alexander, C., & Pain, R. (2012). Urban security: Whose security? Everyday responses to urban fears. In V. Ceccato (Ed.), The urban fabric of crime and fear. London: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andresen, M. A. (2006). Crime measures and the spatial analysis of criminal activity. British Journal of Criminology, 46(2), 258–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Babbie, E. (2010). The practice of social research. Wadsworth: Cengage Learning.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beall, J. (1996). Urban governance: Why gender matters. http://www.gdrc.org/u-gov/doc-whygendermatters.html#Gender Equity in Urban Partnerships. Accessed 22 Dec 2010.

  • Beebeejaun, Y. (2009). Making safer places: Gender and the right to the city. Security Journal, 22(3), 219–229.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Biddulph, M. (2007). Introduction to residential layout. Oxford: Architectural Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Botkyrka municipality. (2010). Material from the project: Trygghetsinventering i Hallunda-Norsborg.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boverket. (1998). Brott, bebyggelse och planering. Karlskrona: Boverket.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boverket. (2006). Jämna steg: checklista för jämställdhet i fysisk planering. Karlskrona: Boverket.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boverket. (2007). Jämna steg: checklista för jämställdhet i fysisk planering (2nd ed.). Karlskrona: Boverket.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boverket. (2009). Om åtgärder för trygghet i städer och tätorter ur ett jämställdhetsperspektiv. Boverket informerar, 2009(1). http://www.boverket.se/Global/Om_Boverket/Dokument/nyhetsbrev/boverket%20_informerar/2009/2009_1.pdf

  • Boverket. (2010a). Jämställdhet på dagordningen: planera för ett tryggt och jämställt samhälle. Karlskrona: Boverket.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boverket. (2010b). Vidga vyerna: planeringsmetoder för trygghet och jämställdhet. Karlskrona: Boverket.

    Google Scholar 

  • Box, S., Hale, C., & Andrews, G. (1988). Explaining fear of crime. British Journal of Criminology, 28(3), 340–356.

    Google Scholar 

  • BRÅ – The Swedish National Council for Crime Prevention. (2002). De lokala råden blir allt fler. Apropå, 1.

    Google Scholar 

  • BRÅ – The Swedish National Council for Crime Prevention. (2010). The Swedish Crime Survey 2009: Victimization, fear of crime and public confidence in the criminal justice system. www.bra.se/publications. Accessed 13 Dec 2010.

  • Bromley, R. D. F., & Nelson, A. L. (2002). Alcohol related crime and disorder across urban space and time: Evidence from a British city. Geoforum, 33(2), 239–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burgess, G. (2008). Planning and gender equality duty – Why does gender matter? People, Place & Policy Online, 2(3), 112–121.

    Google Scholar 

  • Canter, D., & Larkin, P. (1993). The environmental range of serial rapists. Journal of Environment Psychology, 13(1), 63–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ceccato, V. (2009). Crime in a city in transition: The case of Tallinn, Estonia. Urban Studies, 46(8), 1593–1610.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ceccato, V., & Lukyte, N. (2011). Safety and sustainability in a city in transition: The case of Vilnius, Lithuania. Cities, 28(1), 83–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ceccato, V., Haining, R., & Signoretta, P. (2002). Exploring crime statistics in Stockholm using spatial analysis tools. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 92(1), 29–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cozens, P. M., Saville, G., & Hillier, D. (2005). Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) – A review and modern bibliography. Property Management, 23(5), 328–356.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Damyanovic, D. (2007). Gender mainstreaming as a strategy for sustainable urban planning procedures. Vienna: University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences (BOKU), Institute of Landscape.

    Google Scholar 

  • Day, K. (2009). Being feared: Masculinity and race in public space. In M. Lee & S. Farralll (Eds.), Fear of crime: Critical voices in an age of anxiety (pp. 82–107). New York: Routledge-Cavendish.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dymén, C., Henriksson, A., & Pettersson, K. (2009). Att stärka tryggheten i stads- och tätortsmiljöer ur ett jämställdhetsperspektiv – En förstudie av ett antal länders arbete (Nordregio Electronic Working Paper 2009:1). Stockholm: Nordregio.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dymén, C., Henriksson, A., Tepecik Dis, A., Ståhle, T., Pettersson, K., & Langlais, R. (2010). Samhällsplanering för jämställd trygghet – Fallstudier från Finland, Österrike, Storbritannien och Baltikum. Stockholm: Nordregio.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eschholz, S. (1997). The media and fear of crime: A survey of the research. Journal of Law and Public Policy, 9(1), 37–59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eurostat. (2010). Eurostat yearbook. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/product_details/publication?p_product_code=KS-CD-10–220. Accessed 19 Dec 2010.

  • Ferraro, K. F. (1995). Fear of crime: Interpreting victimization risk. Albany: State University of New York Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friberg, T. (1996). Tillståndet i Sverige – Resursmobilisering eller tillväxt. In Hela Samhället – Jämställdhetsaspekter på fysisk planering och byggd miljö. Karlskrona: Boverket.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friberg, T., & Larsson, A. (2000). Att bedriva jämställdhet med kommunal översiktsplanering (Rapporter och notiser 157). Lund: Institutionen för kulturgeografi och ekonomisk geografi.

    Google Scholar 

  • Friedmann, J. (1969). Notes on societal action. Journal of the American Institute of Planners, 35(5), 311–318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Government Equalities Office. (2010). Equality Act 2010. http://www.equalities.gov.uk/equality_act_2010.aspx. Accessed 21 Feb 2011.

  • Greed, C. (Ed.). (2002). Report on gender auditing and mainstreaming incorporating case studies and pilots. University of the West of England. http://www.rtpi.org.uk/download/766/GEnder-Equality-and-Plan-Making-Mainstreaming-Toolkit-case-studies-and-pilots.pdf. Accessed 21 Feb 2011.

  • Grönlund, B. (2012). Is Hammarby Sjöstad a model case? Crime prevention through environmental design in Stockholm, Sweden. In V. Ceccato (Ed.), The urban fabric of crime and fear. London: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hägerstrand, T. (1970). What about people in regional science? Papers in Regional Science Association, 24, 7–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hale, C. (1996). Fear of crime: A review of the literature. International Review of Victimology, 4, 79–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jeffery, C. R. (1971). Crime prevention through environmental design. Beverly Hills: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kindon, S., Rachel, P., & Mike, K. (Eds.). (2007). Connecting people, participation and place: Participatory action research approaches and methods. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koskela, H. (1999). Fear, control and space: Geographies of gender, fear of violence, and video surveillance. PhD thesis. University of Helsinki, Helsinki.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koskela, H. (2006). ‘The other side of surveillance’. webcams, power and agency. In D. Lyon (Ed.), Theorizing surveillance: The Panopticon and beyond. Cullompton: Willan Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koskela, H., & Pain, R. (2000). Revisiting fear and place: Women’s fear of attack and the built environment. Geoforum, 31(2), 269–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kunieda, M., & Gauthier, A. (2007). Gender and urban transport: Fashionable and affordable. Sustainable transport: A sourcebook for police makers in developing cities. Eschborn: GTZ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kyrö, P., & Hyrsky, K. (2008). From marginality to centre. Women’s entrepreneurship policy challenges government’s gender neutrality in Finland. In L. Aaltio, P. Kyrö, & E. Sundin (Eds.), Women, entrepreneurship and social capital. A dialogue and construction. Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business School Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kyttä, M., Puustinen, S., Hirvonen, J., & Lehtonen, H. (2008). Turvallinen asuinalue. Tampereen Muotiala suunnitelmissa ja kokemuksissa. Yhdyskuntasuunnittelun tutkimus- ja koulutuskeskuksen julkaisuja B 93. Helsinki: Helsinki University of Technology [A safe residential area. Muotiala of Tampere as planned and experienced].

    Google Scholar 

  • Larsson, A., & Jalakas, A. (2008). Jämställdhet nästa! Samhällsplanering ur ett genusperspektiv. Stockholm: SNS förlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindsten, S. (Ed.). (2001). Om regionalpolitiken blev jämställd – Jämställdhetsperspektiv på regionalpolitik. Publikation 2001:52. Göteborg: Länsstyrelsen Västra Götaland.

    Google Scholar 

  • Listerborn, C. (2000). Om rätten att slippa skyddas. En studie av trygghetsskapande och brottsförebyggande projekt och kvinnors rädsla för att röra sig i stadens rum. Göteborg: Chalmers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Listerborn, C. (2002). TRYGG STAD – Diskurser om kvinnors rädsla i forskning, policyutveckling och lokal praktik. Göteborg: Chalmers tekniska högskola.

    Google Scholar 

  • Listerborn, C. (2007). Who speaks? And who listens? The relationship between planners and women’s participation in local planning in a multi-cultural urban environment. GeoJournal, 70(1), 61–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loukaitou-Sideris, A., Liggett, R., & Iseki, H. (2002). The geography of transit crime: Documentation and evaluation of crime incidence on and around Green Line stations in Los Angeles. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 22(2), 135–151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Loukaitou-Sideris, A., Bornstein, A., Fink, C., Samuels, L., & Gerami, S. (2009). How to ease women’s fear of transportation environments: Case studies and best practices (MTI REPORT 09–01). http://transweb.sjsu.edu/mtiportal/research/publications/documents/Sideris.pdf. Accessed 19 Feb 2011.

  • Lundkvist, H. (1998). Ojämställdhetens miljöer. Stockholm: Svenska kommunförbundet och Kommentus förlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of Justice, Sweden. (1996). Allas vårt ansvar – ett nationellt brottsförebyggande program (Ds 1996:59). Stockholm: Government Offices.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, L. (2007). Inventing fear of crime: Criminology and the politics of anxiety. Portland: Willan Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newman, O. (1972). Defensible space – Crime prevention through urban design. New York: Collier Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pain, R. H. (1991). Space, sexual violence and social control: Integrating geographical and feminist analyses of women’s fear of crime. Progress in Human Geography, 15(4), 415–431.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pain, R. H. (1995). Elderly women and violent crime: The least likely victims? British Journal of Criminology, 35(4), 584–598.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pain, R. H. (1997). Social geographies of women’s fear of crime. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 22(2), 231–244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pain, R. H. (2000). Place, social relations and the fear of crime: A review. Progress in Human Geography, 24(3), 365–387.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pain, R. (2001). Gender, race, age and fear in the city. Urban Studies, 38(5–6), 899–913.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pyle, G. F. (1974). The spatial dynamics of crime (Research Paper No. 159). Chicago: Department of Geography, University of Chicago.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ratcliffe, J. H., & McGullagh, M. J. (2001). Chasing ghosts? Police perception of high crime areas. British Journal of Criminology, 41(2), 330–341.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reeves, D., & Sheridan, C. (Eds.). (2003). Report on gender auditing and mainstreaming: Incorporating case studies and pilots. University of the West of England. http://www.rtpi.org.uk/download/369/Gender-Equality-Toolkit.pdf. Accessed 22 Feb 2011.

  • Reinprecht, C. (2007). Social housing in Austria. In C. Whitehead & K. Scanlon (Eds.), Social housing in Europe (pp. 35–43). London: London School of Economics and Political Science.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, R. A. W. (1996). The new governance: Governing without government. Policy Studies, 44(4), 652–667.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, W. M., & Conly, C. (1981). Crime and mobility: An empirical study. In P. J. Brantingham & P. L. Brantingham (Eds.), Environmental criminology (pp. 167–188). London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roth, N., & Sandhal, L. J. (2008). Trygg i Stockholm 2008? En stadsövergripande trygghetsmätning. Stockholm: Socialtjänstförvaltningen, Stockholms stad.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sen, P., & Kelly, L. (2007a). Violence against women in the UK (CEDAW Thematic Report). London: The Child and Woman Abuse Studies Unit.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sen, P., & Kelly, L. (2007b). Violence against women in the UK (Shadow Thematic Report For The Committee On The Elimination Of All Forms Of Discrimination Against Women. CEDAW.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherman, L. W., Gartin, P. R., & Buerger, M. E. (1989). Hot spots of predatory crime: Routine activities and the criminology of place. Criminology, 27(1), 27–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sixtensson, J. (2009). Hemma och främmande i staden. Kvinnor med slöja berättar. MAPIUS 4. Malmö: Malmö högskola, Institutionen för Urbana Studier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skogan, W., & Maxfield, M. G. (1981). Coping with crime: Individual and neighbourhood reactions. Beverly Hills: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smaoun, S. (2000). Violence against women in urban areas: An analysis of the problem from a gender perspective (United Nations Urban Management Programme Working paper Series 17). Nairobi: UN HABITAT.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S. J. (1987). Design against crime? Beyond the rhetoric of residential crime prevention. Property Management, 5(2), 146–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S., & Pain, R. (2009). Critical geopolitics and everyday fears. In M. Lee & S. Farrall (Eds.), Fear of crime: Critical voices in an age of anxiety (pp. 45–58). New York: Routledge-Cavendish.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strömgren, A. (2007). Samordning, hyfs och reda – Stabilitet och förändring I svensk planpolitik 1945–2005. Uppsala: Uppsala Universitet.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swedish Government. (2005/06). Makt att forma samhället och sitt eget liv – nya mål i jämställdhetpolitiken (Proposition 2005/06:155). Stockholm: Government Offices.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sweet, E. L., & Escalante, S. O. (2010). Planning responds to gender violence: Evidence from Spain, Mexico and the United States. Urban Studies, 47(10), 2129–2147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UN – United Nations. (1997). Report of the economic and social council for 1997. Official Records of the General Assembly, Fifty-second Session, Supplement No. 3, A/52/3/Rev.1. New York: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs.

    Google Scholar 

  • URBAN NET. (2010). Research anthology. www.urban-net.org/dsresource?objectid=173135&type=org. Accessed 9 of Feb 2011.

  • Valentine, G. (1989). The geography of women’s fear. Area, 21(4), 385–390.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wekerle, G., & Whitzman, C. (1995). Safe cities: Guidelines for planning, design and management. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitzman, C. (2007). Stuck at the front door: Gender, fear of crime and the challenge of creating safer space. Environment and Planning A, 39(11), 2715–2732.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wikström, P. O. H. (1991). Urban crime, criminals, and victims: The Swedish experience in an Anglo-American comparative perspective. Stockholm: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Will, J. A., & Mcgrath, J. H. (1995). Crime, neighbourhood perceptions and the underclass: The relationship between fear of crime and class position. Journal of Criminal Justice, 23(2), 163–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zelinka, A., & Brennan, D. (2001). Safescape. Chicago: American Planning Association.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Boverket (Swedish National Board of Housing, Building and Planning) for financing the case study research in Austria, Finland and the UK. The authors are also grateful to Asli Tepecik Dis, Anu Henriksson and Tanja Ståhle who performed the case study research in Austria, Finland and the UK, as well as Katarina Pettersson and Richard Langlais for valuable comments on early stages of the research.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Nordregio – Nordic Centre for Spatial Development, Holmamiralens väg 10, 111 86, Stockholm, Sweden

    Christian Dymén

  2. School of Architecture and the Built Environment, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH), Drottning Kristinasväg 30, 10044, Stockholm, Sweden

    Vania Ceccato

Authors
  1. Christian Dymén
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Vania Ceccato
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Vania Ceccato .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. , Department of Urban Planning and Environ, Royal Institute of Technology, Drottning Kristinas väg 30, Stockholm, 10044, Sweden

    Vania Ceccato

Appendix 1: Questionnaire

Appendix 1: Questionnaire

1.1 The Case Setting

  1. 1.

    What is the project about? (Private space/public space; fear of crime/risk of crime; being in control/being under control)

  2. 2.

    Who initiated the project/who are the actors? (Rational planning/communicative planning)

  3. 3.

    What is the problem/goal/objective? (Private space/public space; fear of crime/risk of crime; being in control/being under control)

  4. 4.

    What is/was the project definition of safety from a gender equality perspective? (Considering that this may be culturally defined…) (private space/public space; fear of crime/risk of crime; being in control/being under control)

  5. 5.

    What is the social, economic and environmental background for the project? Nationally: Legislation, policies; locally: Social, economical and environmental background (context)

  6. 6.

    When did the project/organisation start? (Context)

  7. 7.

    Why was it initiated? (Private space/public space; fear of crime/risk of crime; being in control/being under control; rational planning/communicative planning)

  8. 8.

    What initiated the project? (Private space/public space; fear of crime/risk of crime; being in control/being under control)

  9. 9.

    Who funded the project? (Context)

  10. 10.

    Which are the target groups? (Context)

1.2 Tools, Methods and Processes Used in the Case Projects

  1. 11.

    What methods and processes were used in the project/organisation? (Rational planning/communicative planning)

  2. 12.

    What posed the major challenges? And were there any unexpected facilitating events? (Rational planning/communicative planning)

  3. 13.

    What physical measures were implemented? (Private space/public space; fear of crime/risk of crime; being in control/being under control)

  4. 14.

    Did the country context (gender equality and planning policy system) influence implementation and outcomes of the project? If so, in what ways? (Context)

  5. 15.

    How are spatial planners and other actors involved in the project? (Rational planning/communicative planning; being in control/being under control)

1.3 Impacts of the Case Projects

What impacts did the project have? (Legislation, gender equality policy, physical changes, planning practice, social, economic and environmental aspects) (private space/public space; fear of crime/risk of crime; being in control/being under control; rational planning/communicative planning).

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Dymén, C., Ceccato, V. (2011). An International Perspective of the Gender Dimension in Planning for Urban Safety. In: Ceccato, V. (eds) The Urban Fabric of Crime and Fear. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4210-9_13

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation