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Standard Candles in Astronomy

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Astronomy at the Frontiers of Science

Part of the book series: Integrated Science & Technology Program ((ISTP,volume 1))

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Abstract

One of the basic missions of Astronomy is to measure distances in the cosmos. This is usually done using the method of standard candles, which requires identifying astronomical objects or phenomena with a repeatable luminosity, and to measure that luminosity. Objects suitable as standard candles range from stars to supernovae, but also properties of the light of galaxies and the distribution of galaxies in clusters are useful standard candles. more luminous objects can be used to measure larger distances, looking back into the evolution of the Universe. We review here some of the history of determining astronomical distances, and discuss some of the most recent applications and results.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Here we distinguish between the term “luminous” which refers to the effective light output of a star, and the terms “bright” vs. “faint”, which are relative statements that refer to the observed flux and hence depend on the distance to the source.

  2. 2.

    Magnitudes are logarithmic units of flux, and a larger magnitude implies a fainter object. This somewhat confusing system stems from the early days of astronomy, before the telescope was even invented, and reflects the way the human eye perceives light. The brightest stars were assigned to “first magnitude”, somewhat fainter stars “second magnitude”, etc. A difference of 5 magnitudes is equivalent to a difference of 100 times in flux. Objects visible with the naked eye have apparent magnitudes between ∼ 5 (the faintest ones) and ∼ − 1 (a bright star like Sirius). The Sun in daytime has apparent magnitude − 26. 7, the full Moon at night − 12. 6.

  3. 3.

    The unit of the Hubble “constant” is of course the inverse of time, but astronomers use km s − 1 Mpc − 1 so that when it is multiplied by the distance in Megaparsecs, the resulting speed of recession is in km/s (Hubble’s law).

  4. 4.

    The absolute magnitude of a celestial object is the magnitude it would have if it was observed from a distance of 1 pc.

  5. 5.

    This is difference between absolute and apparent magnitude, and is related to the distance in parsecs as \(\mu = m - M = -5 + 5\log D(pc)\).

  6. 6.

    The HRD displays stars according to their spectral type (i.e. temperature) and their luminosity. During the course of their evolution, stars move in the HRD following well-known “evolutionary tracks”. Initially, stars sit on a line known as the “Main Sequence” After exhausting their core hydrogen, stars expand and become cooler, moving to the top right of the HRD, where “Red Giants” (RG) are located. The most massive stars become Red supergiants (RSG).

  7. 7.

    In astronomy, “metals” include all elements heavier than helium.

  8. 8.

    The parameter Ω measures the density ρ in the Universe in units of the critical density ρ c : \(\Omega \equiv \rho /{\rho }_{c} = 8\pi G\rho /3{H}^{2}\).

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Acknowledgements

The author is deeply grateful to Brian Schmidt and Elena Pian for critically reading earlier versions of this manuscript.

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  1. INAF–Osservatorio di Padova, Vicolo dell’Osservatorio, 5, 35122, Padova, Italy

    Paolo A. Mazzali

  2. Max-Planck-Institut für Astrophysik, 85748, Garching, Germany

    Paolo A. Mazzali

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  1. Paolo A. Mazzali
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Correspondence to Paolo A. Mazzali .

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  1. Institut d’Astrophysique de Paris, Boulevard Arago 98bis, Paris, 75014, France

    Jean-Pierre Lasota

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Mazzali, P.A. (2011). Standard Candles in Astronomy. In: Lasota, JP. (eds) Astronomy at the Frontiers of Science. Integrated Science & Technology Program, vol 1. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1658-2_2

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