Skip to main content

Values and the Sciences

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Values Pedagogy and Student Achievement
  • 929 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter will survey the major research findings from the social sciences (psychology and sociology), their impact on educational aims and assessment, and their pertinence or not to values. It will also explore more recent research in neuroscience that is challenging traditional conceptions of ‘cognition’ as essentially separate from and, at best, only marginally related to ‘affect’ and ‘sociality’. These traditional conceptions have driven views of learning that privilege the more measurable outcomes of cognition and marginalize not only higher forms of thinking but also social, emotional, moral, aesthetic and spiritual development. The greater nexus between cognition, affect and sociality posed by research in the neurosciences is causing such conceptions to be revised in favour of a view of learning as a complex and multifaceted phenomenon involving a broader range of interconnected developmental domains. Among other things, this research has provided an empirically based explanation for aspects of the studied effects of values pedagogy and, for the authors, has particular pertinence for the findings related to student achievement and wellbeing with which they have been associated in the Australian Values Education Program.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Ainley, M. (2006). Connecting with learning: Motivation, affect and cognition in interest processes. Educational Psychology Review, 18, 391–405.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ainley, M. (2007). Being and feeling interested: Transient state, mood and disposition. In P. A. Schutz & R. Pekrun (Eds.), Emotion in education (pp. 147–163). Amsterdam: Academic Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, M., & Reid, C. (2009). Don’t forget about levels of explanation. Cortex, 45, 560–561.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barrett, L. F. (2009). The future of psychology: Connecting mind to brain. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 326–339.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Battro, A. M. (2010). The teaching brain. Mind, Brain, and Education, 4, 28–33.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bechara, A., Damasio, A. R., & Bar-On, R. (2007). The anatomy of emotional intelligence and implications for educating people to be emotionally intelligent. In R. Bar-On, J. G. Maree, & M. J. Elias (Eds.), Educating people to be emotionally intelligent (pp. 273–290). Westport: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blakemore, S. J., & Frith, U. (2005). The learning brain: Lessons for education. Oxford: Blackwell. http://www.eblib.com/. Accessed 7 June 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boekaerts, M. (1993). Being concerned with well-being and with learning. Educational Psychologist, 28, 149–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of human development. American Psychologist, 32, 513–531.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bruer, J. T. (1999). In search of brain-based education. Phi Delta Kappan, 80, 648–657.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cacioppo, J. T., Amaral, D. G., Blanchard, J. J., Cameron, J. L., Carter, C. S., Crews, D., et al. (2007). Social neuroscience: Progress and implications for mental health. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 99–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carnegie Corporation. (1996). Years of promise: A comprehensive learning strategy for America’s children. The report of the Carnegie Task Force on learning in the primary grades. Carnegie Corporation of New York. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED397995) New York. http://eric.ed.gov. Accessed 7 June 2011.

  • Cicchetti, D., & Blender, J. A. (2006). A multiple-levels-of-analysis perspective on resilience. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 248–258.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clement, N. (2010a). The first pillar of the student wellbeing pedagogy: The neuroscience research. In R. Toomey, T. Lovat, N. Clement, and K. Dally (Eds.), Teacher education and values pedagogy: A student wellbeing approach (pp. 15–31). Sydney: Barlow.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clement, N. (2010b). Student wellbeing at school: The actualization of values in education. In T. Lovat, R. Toomey, & N. Clement (Eds.), International research handbook on values education and student wellbeing (pp. 19–36). Dordrecht: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dai, D. Y., & Sternberg, R. J. (2004). Beyond cognitivism: Towards an integrated understanding of intellectual functioning and development. In D. Y. Dai & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), Motivation, emotion, and cognition: Integrative perspectives on intellectual functioning and development (pp. 3–38). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dally, K. (2010). The second pillar of the student wellbeing pedagogy: Social and emotional learning. In R. Toomey, T. Lovat, N. Clement, & K. Dally (Eds.), Teacher education and values pedagogy: A student wellbeing approach (pp. 32–53). Sydney: Barlow.

    Google Scholar 

  • Damasio, A. R. (1996). Descartes’ error: Emotion, reason and the human brain. London: Papermac.

    Google Scholar 

  • Damasio, A. R. (1999). The feeling of what happens: Body and emotion in the making of consciousness. New York: Harcourt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Damasio, A. R. (2003). Looking for Spinoza: Joy, sorrow, and the feeling brain New York: Harcourt.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deakin Crick, R., McCombs, B., Haddon, A., Broadfoot, P., & Tew, M. (2007). The ecology of learning: Factors contributing to learner-centred classroom cultures. Research Papers in Education, 22, 267–307.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, A. (2007). Interrelated and interdependent. Developmental Science, 10, 152–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, A. (2009). The interplay of biology and the environment broadly defined. Developmental Psychology, 45, 1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doige, N. (2008). The brain that changes itself: Stories of personal triumph from the frontiersof brain science. Melbourne: Scribe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Domìnguez Duque, J. F., Turner, R., Lewis, E. D., & Egan, G. (2010). Neuroanthropology: A humanistic science for the study of the culture-brain nexus. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 5, 138–147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunbar, R., & Shultz, S. (2007). Evolution in the social brain. Science, 317(5843), 1344–1347.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elias, M. J., Arnold, H., & Hussey, C. S. (2002). EQ, IQ, and effective learning and citizenship. In M. J. Elias, H. Arnold, & C. S. Hussey (Eds.), EQ + IQ= Best leadership practices for caring and successful schools (pp. 3–10). Thousand Oaks: Corwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fagiolini, M., Jensen, C. L., & Champagne, F. A. (2009). Epigenetic influences on brain development and plasticity. Current opinion in neurobiology, 19, 207–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, K. W. (2009). Mind, brain, and education: Building a scientific groundwork for learning and teaching. Mind, Brain, and Education, 3, 3–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, K. W., & Heikkinen, K. (2010). The future of educational neuroscience. In R. De Sousa (Ed.), Mind, brain, and education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom (pp. 249–269). Bloomington: Solution Tree.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, S. E. (2006). Tangled webs: Tracing the connections between genes and cognition. Cognition, 101, 270–297.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Franks, D. D. (2010). Neurosociology: The nexus between neuroscience and social psychology. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Galván, A. (2010). Neural plasticity of development and learning. Human Brain Mapping, 31, 879–890.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, H. (1985/1987). The mind’s new science: A history of the cognitive revolution. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geake, J. (2008). Neuromythologies in education. Educational Research, 50, 123–133.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ginott, H. G. (1975). Teacher and child: A book for parents and teachers. New York: Avon Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goleman, D. (2001). The emotionally intelligent workplace. San Francisco: Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goleman, D. (2006). Social intelligence: The new science of human relationships. London: Hutchinson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goswami, U. C. (2006). Neuroscience and education: From research to practice? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 7, 406–413.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goswami, U. C. (2008). Principles of learning, implications for teaching: A cognitive neuroscience perspective. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 42, 381–399.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Habermas, J. (1972). Knowledge and human interests (trans: J. Shapiro). London: Heinemann.

    Google Scholar 

  • Habermas, J. (1974). Theory and practice (trans: J. Viertal). London: Heinmann.

    Google Scholar 

  • Habermas, J. (1984). The theory of communicative action: (trans: T. McCarthy, Vol. I). Boston: Beacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Habermas, J. (1987). The theory of communicative action (trans: T. McCarthy, Vol. II). Boston: Beacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Habermas, J. (1990). Moral consciousness and communicative action (trans: C. Lenhardt & S. W. Nicholsen). Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinton, C., Miyamoto, K., & Della-Chiesa, B. (2008). Brain research, learning and emotions: Implications for education research, policy and practice. European Journal of Education, 43, 87–103.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, M. L. (2000). Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and justice. Cambridge: Cambrdige University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Horst, S. W. (2007). Beyond reduction philosophy of mind and post-reductionist philosophy of science. Oxford: Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/. Accessed 7 June 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howard-Jones, P. (2008). Philosophical challenges for researchers at the interface between neuroscience and education. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 42, 361–380.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hyman, S. E., & Nestler, E. J. (1993). The molecular foundations of psychiatry. Washington: American Psychiatric Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Iacoboni, M. (2008). Mirroring people: The new science of how we connect with others (1st ed.). New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

    Google Scholar 

  • Immordino-Yang, M. H. (2007). A tale of two cases: Lessons for education from the study of two boys living with half their brains. Mind, Brain, and Education, 1, 66–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Immordino-Yang, M. H. (2008). Emotions, social relationships, and the brain: Implications for the classroom. ASCD Express, 3, 20–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Immordino-Yang, M. H., & Damasio, A. R. (2007). We feel, therefore we learn: The relevance of affect and social neuroscience to education. Mind, Brain, and Education, 1, 3–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Immordino-Yang, M. H., & Faeth, M. (2010). Building smart students: A neuroscience perspective on the role of emotion and skilled intuition in learning. In D. A. Sousa (Ed.), Mind, brain and education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom (pp. 66–81). Bloomington: Solution Tree.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jencks, C., et al. (1972). Inequality: A reassessment of the effect of family and schooling in America. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, E. G., & Mendell, L. M. (1999). Assessing the decade of the brain [Editorial]. Science, 284(5415), 739.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jörg, T., Davis, B., & Nickmans, G. (2007). Towards a new, complexity science of learning and education. Educational Research Review, 2, 145–156.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jossey-Bass Inc. (2008). The Jossey-Bass reader on the brain and learning (Foreword by Kurt Fischer and Mary Helen Immordino-Yang). San Francisco: Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, E. R. (1998). A new intellectual framework for psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 457–469.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kandel, E. R. (2006). In search of memory: The emergence of a new science of mind. New York: Norton & Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, M., & Sankey, D. (2009). Towards a dynamic systems approach to moral development and moral education: A response to the JME Special Issue, September 2008. Journal of Moral Education, 38, 283–298.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kress, J. S., Norris, J. A., Schoenholz, D. A., Elias, M. J., & Seigle, P. (2004). Bringing together educational standards and social and emotional learning: Making the case for educators. American Journal of Education, 111, 68–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lehrer, J. (2009). The decisive moment: How the brain makes up its mind. Melbourne: Text Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lickliter, R. (2008). The growth of developmental thought: Implications for a new evolutionary psychology. New Ideas in Psychology, 26, 353–369.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lickliter, R. (2009). The fallacy of partitioning: Epigenetics’ validation of the organism-environment system. Ecological Psychology, 21, 138–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lilienfeld, S. (2007). Cognitive neuroscience and depression: Legitimate versus illegitimate reductionism and five challenges. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 31, 263–272.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Linnenbrink, E. (2006). Emotion research in education: Theoretical and methodological perspectives on the integration of affect, motivation, and cognition [Editorial]. Educational Psychology Review, 18, 307–314.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Louden, W., Rohl, M., Barrat Pugh, C., Brown, C., Cairney, T., Elderfield, J., et al. (2005). In teachers’ hands: Effective literacy teaching practices in the early years of schooling. http://inteachershands.education.ecu.edu.au/. Accessed 7 June 2011.

  • Lovat, T. (2008). About the outdated Newtonian paradigm in education and complexity and a complexity science of learning: How far are we from a paradigm shift? [Invited response]. Educational Research Review, 3, 77–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovat, T., & Clement, N. (2008a). The pedagogical imperative of values education. Journal of Beliefs & Values: Studies in Religion & Education, 29, 273–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lovat, T., & Clement, N. (2008b). Quality teaching and values education: Coalescing for effective learning. Journal of Moral Education, 37, 1–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meltzoff, A. N., & Decety, J. (2003). What imitation tells us about social cognition: A rapprochement between developmental psychology and cognitive neuroscience. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 358, 491–500.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meltzoff, A. N., & Moore, M. K. (1997). Explaining facial imitation: A theoretical model. Early Development and Parenting, 6, 179–192.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meltzoff, A. N., Kuhl, P. K., Movellan, J., & Sejnowski, T. J. (2009). Foundations for a new science of learning. Science, 325, 284–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moulson, M. C., Fox, N. A., Zeanah, C. H., & Nelson, C. A. (2009). Early adverse experiences and the neurobiology of facial emotion processing. Developmental Psychology, 45, 17–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Narvaez, D. (2010a). Building a sustaining classroom climate for purposeful ethical citizenship. In T. Lovat, R. Toomey, & N. Clement (Eds.), International research handbook on values education and student wellbeing (pp. 659–673). Dordrecht: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Narvaez, D. (2010b). The emotional foundations of high moral intelligence. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2010, 77–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Narvaez, D. (2010c). Moral complexity: The fatal attraction of truthiness and the importance of mature moral functioning. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 163–181.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • OECD. (2007). Understanding the brain: The birth of a learning science. Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). http://www.eblib.com/. Accessed 7 June 2011.

  • Parsons, T., & Bales, R. F. (1956). Family: Socialization and interaction process. Glencoe: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pessoa, L. (2008). On the relationship between emotion and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9, 148–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poldrack, R. A. (2000). Imaging brain plasticity: Conceptual and methodological issues: A theoretical review. NeuroImage, 12, 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Purdy, N. (2008). Neuroscience and education: How best to filter out the neurononsense from our classrooms. Irish Educational Studies, 27, 197–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Purdy, N., & Morrison, H. (2009). Cognitive neuroscience and education: Unravelling the confusion. Oxford Review of Education, 35, 99–109.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rizzolatti, G., Fogassi, L., & Gallese, V. (2001). Neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the understanding and imitation of action. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, 661–670.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, G. E., Fernald, R. D., & Clayton, D. F. (2008). Genes and social behavior. Science, 322, 896–900.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ronstadt, K., & Yellin, P. B. (2010). Linking mind, brain and education to clinical practice: A proposal for transdisciplinary collaboration. Mind, Brain, and Education, 4, 95–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, T. L., & Fischer, K. W. (2009). Dynamic development: A Piagetian approach. In U. Müller, J. I. M. Carpendale, & L. Smith (Eds.), The Cambridge companion to Piaget (pp. 400–421). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, D., & Strangman, N. (2007). Universal design for learning: Meeting the challenge of individual learning differences through a neurocognitive perspective. Universal Access in the Information Society, 5, 381–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosiek, J., & Beghetto, R. A. (2009). Emotional scaffolding: The emotional and imaginative dimensions of teaching and learning. In P. A. Schutz & M. Zembylas (Eds.), Advances in teacher emotion research: The impact on teachers’ lives (pp. 175–194). Dordrecht: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Rowe, K. J. (2004). In good hands? The importance of teacher quality. Educare News, 149, 4–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, R. M. (2007). Motivation and emotion: A new look and approach for two reemerging fields. Motivation and Emotion, 31, 1–3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sætrevik, B., Reber, R., & Sannum, P. (2006). The utility of implicit learning in the teaching of rules. Learning and Instruction, 16, 363–373.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Samuels, B. M. (2009). Can the differences between education and neuroscience be overcome by mind, brain and education? Mind, Brain, and Education, 3, 45–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sankey, D. (2006). The neuronal, synaptic self: Having values and making choices. Journal of Moral Education, 35, 163–178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schutz, P. A., & Pekrun, R. (Eds.). (2007). Emotion in education. Amsterdam: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schutz, P. A., & Zembylas, M. (Eds.). (2009). Advances in teacher emotion research: The impact on teachers’ lives. Dordrecht: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfillment. New York: Free Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge and growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15, 4–14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57, 1–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sokol, B., Hammond, S., & Berkowitz, M. W. (2010). The developmental contours of character. In T. J. Lovat, R. Toomey, & N. D. Clement (Eds.), International research handbook on values education and student wellbeing (pp. 579–603). Dordrecht: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Sousa, D. A. (2010). Mind, brain and education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom. Bloomington: Solution Tree.

    Google Scholar 

  • Squire, L. R., & Kandel, E. R. (2009). Memory: From mind to molecules (2nd ed.). Greenwood Village: Roberts & Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Squire, L. R., & Stark, C. E. L. (2008). Memory systems. In J. R. Pomerantz (Ed.), Topics in integrative neuroscience: From cells to cognition (pp. 243–264). Leiden: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Sternberg, R. (2007). Wisdom, intelligence, and creativity synthesized. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Storbeck, J., & Clore, G. L. (2007). On the interdependence of cognition and emotion. Cognition & Emotion, 21, 1212–1237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Geert, P., & Steenbeek, H. (2008). Brains and the dynamics of “wants” and “cans” in learning. Mind, Brain, and Education, 2, 62–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wexler, B. E. (2006). Brain and culture: Neurobiology, ideology, and social change. Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willis, J. (2006). Research-based strategies to ignite student learning: Insights from a neurologist and classroom teacher. Alexandria: ASCD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willis, J. (2010). The current impact of neuroscience on teaching and learning. In R. De Sousa (Ed.), Mind, brain and education: Neuroscience implications for the classroom (pp. 45–66). Bloomington: Solution Tree.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, T. D. (2009). Know thyself. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4, 384–389.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zahn-Waxler, C., Radke-Yarrow, M., & King, R. A. (1979). Child rearing and children’s prosocial initiations toward victims of distress. Child Development, 50, 319–330.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zembylas, M. (2005). Teaching with emotion: A postmodern enactment. Greenwich: Information Age.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zembylas, M. (2007). Emotional ecology: The intersection of emotional knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge in teaching. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 355–367.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, J., & Kourtzi, Z. (2010). Learning-dependent plasticity with and without training in the human brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107, 13503–13508.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, H., & Cacioppo, J. (2010). Culture and the brain: Opportunities and obstacles. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 13, 59–71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Terence Lovat .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Lovat, T., Dally, K., Clement, N., Toomey, R. (2011). Values and the Sciences. In: Values Pedagogy and Student Achievement. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1563-9_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics