Abstract
When the organizers of this book kindly asked me to write the Introduction, I felt at the same time honoured and abashed (embarrassé), both because of my nationality, being not a Brazilian but a French. I felt honoured and pleased, for it meant that they consider me to some extent as pertaining to Brazilian culture, and particularly to the Brazilian academic milieu of philosophers. True, other friends and colleagues in this country already told me that, and even use to say it, and I know that they not only say it but think it sincerely. Even if it is not new for me, this adoption makes me always very pleased and I must say that I reciprocally feel at home in Brazil – I mean the country, the people and the culture -, and this reciprocal reconnaissance is grounded on many years (44, indeed) of convivence and work with Brazilian scholars, professors, searchers and students as well, this being not exclusive of course. And I think important that it be not exclusive, for various obvious reasons, among which that one: the academic and intellectual milieu and concern are not separated from the rest of social life, in all its dimensions. This is true also as well of philosophy, “even” philosophy of science if I dare say, and such will be the meaning of my first reflection in this Introduction.
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- 1.
See G. Canguilhem, Etudes d’histoire et de philosophie des sciences, Vrin, Paris, 1968 (Sth ed.,1989, p. 61 sq.); M. Fichant, L’idée d’une histoire des Sciences, in M. Fichant et M. Pécheux, Sur l’histoire des Sciences, Maspero, Paris, 1969.
- 2.
Under the colonial regime, Brazil was not authorized to print books neither to create universities, at variance with the Spanish colonies in America – whose Universities were under the control of the Catholic Church. Among the foreign languages and cultures, one should add Italian (since the end of nineteenth century, due to an important immigration, mostly in the State of São Paulo) and Spanish (even more ecent, for Latin-American integration has been favoured only in the lates decades).
- 3.
Rodriguez (1985–1993).
- 4.
An idea, to say it en passant, that was more based on a biological static model, that of Anatomy, rather than on a physical – mechanical – one: see Benoit (1999)2007.
- 5.
An interesting symptoma of that diffusion is its present remnents: those books are still very commonly at sale in the second hand bookshops of the Brazilian cities.
- 6.
- 7.
In the line inspired by Pierre Laffitte, a french disciple of Comte, whose book on Arithmetics was re-edited in 1880, not in France but in Brazil – in French. Typical of the brazilian positivist conception of Mathematics are the books written at the turn of the twentieth century by the militar Marshall Trompowski (see for instance Trompowski (1903)).
- 8.
- 9.
Among the many essays on this author, Farias Brito’s work has been extensively studied and situated in its context in Carvalho (1951)1977.
- 10.
Not to speak of the native traditional knowledges, about which one can get informations in the anthropologists’ works (such as those of Jehan Vellard, Alfred Métraux, Luis de Castro Farias, Darcy and Berta Ribeiro, Eduardo Viveiros de Castro, Ugo Maia, and others), and from recent studies on Ethnosciences. A pionneer in Brasil for Ethnomathematics is the mathematician Ubiratan d’Ambrosio (b. 1932).
- 11.
See, for instance, on Oswaldo Cruz and the Institute of Research named after him, Stepan (1976) and Delaporte (1999) on Carlos Chagas.
- 12.
On the History of Science in Brazil, see: Azevedo (1943, 1955), Ferri & Motoyama (1979–1981), Schwartzman (1979), Quipu (1988). On the History of Techniques and Technology in Brazil, see: Gama (1983), Vargas (1994). For a shorter overall scope on History of Science in Latin America, see: Paty (1992b).
- 13.
Domingues, Romero & Glick (2003).
- 14.
- 15.
Barros S.P.M. (1986), p. 341–409.
- 16.
Private Universities have also multiplied in the last decades, but only a few of them – essentially the catholic Pontifical Unversities – have aims and levels comparable to the public ones.
- 17.
Pettjean (1996).
- 18.
The french philosophers who tought at the University of the Federal District (UDF), in Rio de Janeiro, were Emile Bréhier (1876–1952), historian of Philosophy. Etienne Souriau (1892–1979), philosopher of Aesthetics, both staying from 1936 to 1939, and Henri Poirier (philospher of Knowledge and of Science, see later on), who stayed from 1939 to 1945 (the UDF had become the University of Brasil).
- 19.
- 20.
Lévi-Strasuss (1955), 1965 ed., p. 88.
- 21.
- 22.
- 23.
Anísio Teixeira’s committment with the beginnings of the University of Brasilia (UnB) has been in tight collaboration with the ethnologist Darcy Ribeiro. See: Teixeira & Ribeiro (1962), Ribeiro (1978). Unfortunately, the University of Brasilia (UnB), a progressist institution conceived with a special cconcern towards the problems of the developing countries, was violently stopped at the end of 1965, after 2 years of full existence, by the hostility and repression of the militar dictatorial government that was issued from the putsch of april 1964. I personnally had the privilege to participate as a young visiting professor (at that time, in Physics) to the last semester of this “interrupted University”, to borrow the expression from one of the main protagonists – and later its historian – of this adventure, which was also somehow an epopeia: Salmeron (1998) 2007.
- 24.
On the political engagement of philosophers, see Nobre & Rego (2000). See also the critical reading of this book by Ricardo Musse, “Da militância política à filosofia. Um panorama da filosofia brasileira”, Folha de São Paulo, 10.02.2001.
- 25.
A large number of universitary professors, in particular in Humanities and Social Sciences, were compulsory dismissed, emprisoned or obliged to go to exile. Among these, in São Paulo University, the professors of Philosophy J. A. Gianotti, Bento Prado de Almeida Ferraz Jr, Ruy Fausto; the professors of Sociology xxx, Fernando Henrique Cardoso (later President of the Republic), and a number of others. Gianotti and Cardoso were among the founders of the cebrap.
- 26.
- 27.
Carneiro (1970).
- 28.
- 29.
Lívio Teixeira has impulsed the cartesian studies in Brasil, whose present importance has deserved a presentation and extensive bibliography (by Eneias Forlin) in the Bulletin Cartésies n°36 (in Archives de Philosophie, Paris) for the year 2005. On Lívio Teixeira, see Ferraz (Bento Prado) (1975).
- 30.
- 31.
- 32.
Such as Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault, Jules Vuillemin, Gilles G. Granger, Georges Simondon, Pierre Bourdieu (also a sociologist), … Guéroult’s Dianoématique, let unachieved and published posthumely, included a History of the History of Philosphy and a Philosophy of the History of Philosphy.
- 33.
Granger (1955).
- 34.
V. Goldschmit and C. Lefort were marxist-oriented with independent and critical minds. The Philosophy of Maurice Merleau-Ponty has been widespread in Brazil, in particular through C. Lefort, and also directly for various brazilian philosophers who have attended his lectures at Collège de France. Husserl’s Phenomenology represents also an important current, represented at USP by Carlos Alberto Ribeiro de Moura (Moura (1999)).
- 35.
He then travelled for some years in various places in Brazil and abroad as an expert of Unesco and of the Brazilian Ministery of Education.
- 36.
Debrun, Gonzales & Pessoa (2004).
- 37.
See in particular: Lebrun (1988).
- 38.
See among his books published in Brazil: Wolff (1997). E. Wolff has ensured the continuation of the official french presence at the Department of Philosophy of USP, succeeding to Gérard Lebrun. After an interruption of 4 years, the franco-brasilian professorship was provisionally reestablished and I myself have been its last titular for 2 years, in 1989 and 1990. Years later, on my retirement from CNRS in France, I have been elected visiting professor for Philosophy by the Faculty of Philosophy, Letters and Human Sciences of the USP, and I stayed there 2 years, from mid 2004 to mid 2006. In both periods I tought Philosophy of Science.
- 39.
Nunes (1999).
- 40.
- 41.
- 42.
His last book, published after his death (prepared by Luis Franklin de Matos, himself a specialist of Enlightenment), was on J.J. Rousseau: Ferraz (2008).
- 43.
She accompanied her academical commitment with a political engagement (along with the Workers Party led by Lula da Silva, since its beginning), undertaken courageously, with enthusiasm and lucidity.
- 44.
- 45.
Landim (2009).
- 46.
- 47.
da Costa (1964).
- 48.
Guillaume (1996).
- 49.
- 50.
- 51.
The limitation is somewhat arbitrary, and I hardly refrain to quote the names of professors of Philosophy at USP with whom I also shared intellectual connvivence and friendship. For example those working on the eighteenth century enlightenment, as Milton Meira do Nascimento (who has also a fundamental and efficient editorial activity in Philosophy with the USP Discurso Publisher), Luis Franklin de Matos, Maria das Graças de Souza; Olgaria Chaim Matos; Gabriel Cohn, on Max Weber; Ricardo Terra on Philosophy of Politics and the Francfort School; Roberto Bolzani Filho, Marco Zingano, Moacyr Novais… I want to mention also the work of the group of sociologists around Jeremias de Oliveira on the Methodology of Social Sciences and the Philosophy of Knowledge.
- 52.
See, in particular, his 100 p. Introductory Essay to his new translation in Portuguese of Wittgenstein’s, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus entitled “The Essence of the Proposition and the Essence of the World” (in Wittgenstein (1921) 1994, p. 11–112).
- 53.
More on some of them in the presentation of their contributions, below.
- 54.
Cf. Pessoa (2001).
- 55.
Moreno (2005).
- 56.
I quote here a number of these in Philosophy of Science, Epistemology and History of Science o Brazilians which I have oriented, or to whose orientation I have contributed, either in Brazil or in France: Aurani (1992). Batista (1999), Benoit (1999), Camelier (2000), Chibeni (1997), Freire (1999), Pietrocola de Oliveira (1992), Ramos (1998), Simon Rodrigues (1995), Videira (1992). My ancient students and my olleaagues have offered me a Symposium (in 2003) and a collective book on my “40 years of colloration with Brazil” (Freire & Pietrocola (2005)).
- 57.
It was inspired by the experience of the late University of Brasilia (see above), of which Zeferino Vaz had been previously the Rector for 1 year, from april 1964 to mid 1965 (“intervening Rector”, named by to militar Government to substitute Anísio Teixeira, dismissed), and who had been impressed by its conceptions and realizations (see Salmeron (1998)).
- 58.
- 59.
- 60.
- 61.
Among the treated items were: Principles in Philosophy and in the Sciences (1999), The Philosophy of Bertrand Russell (2001), The Philosophy of Willard van Orman Quine (2003), The Philosophy of Donald Davidson (2005), The Philosophy of Bas van Fraassen (2007), Charles Darwin and his impact on philosophy and science (2009).
- 62.
With the active implication of the Professors Aurino Ribeiro Filho and Olival Freire Jr (on the latter, who contributes to the book, see below).
- 63.
After beginnings in journalism, he prepared a Doctorate Thesis in Geography, which he defended in the University of Strasbourg (France), on the centre of the City of Salvador (it has been publisher in Portuguese and in French in 1959, the frend edition being prefaced by Pierre Monbeig). During the militaty dictatorship he went for a long exile which he spent mainly in France. Back to Salvador, he received full recognition in his country when he was called to São Paulo University.
- 64.
- 65.
In particular, these concepts call the problem of the junction between the natural and the social science in this discipline.
- 66.
- 67.
- 68.
On the Living Memory see: Domingues (2004). For other publications:
- 69.
See for ex.: Alfonso-Goldfarb & Maia (1995–1996).
- 70.
The lack of space forbids me to quote all the means (publications, regular meetings, societies, etc.) at the local, regional and international – latino american – levels that favours contacts, collaborations, diffusion of works. They are multiplying and gaining in efficiency.
- 71.
- 72.
Euler, L: “Découverte d’un nouveau principe de méchanique”, Mémoires de l’Académie des Sciences de Berlin, 6 (1750), 1752, p. 185–217. Republ. in L. E., Opera Omnia, series 2: Opera mechanica et astronomica, vol. 5, ed. by Joachim Otto Fleckenstein, Lausanne, 1957, p. 81–109; d’Alembert, J., Traité de dynamique, David, Paris, 1743. 2nd ed., modif. and augm., David, Paris, 1758. See M. Paty, “L’élément différentiel de temps et la causalité physique dans la dynamique de d’Alembert”, in Morelon, Régis & Hasnawi, Ahmad (éds.), De Zénon d’Elée à Poincaré. Recueil d’études en hommage à Roshdi Rashed, Editions Peeters, Louvain (Be), 2004, p. 391–426.
- 73.
His Doctorate thesis, defended at USP in 1998 (during the preparation of it he spent 1 year in the rehseis Lab at University Paris 7-Diderot) bears on Maupertuis and the Generation of Organized Bodies.
- 74.
- 75.
- 76.
Simon Rodrigues (1995).
- 77.
See, for instance, Paty (1999).
- 78.
See also Dantes (2001).
- 79.
Lopes (1997), Figuerôa (1997).
- 80.
I was an invited professor at the Philosophy Department at São Paulo University when he came to me on Amelia’s advice and undertook a Doctorate Thesis bearing on David Bohm’s thought and work in Quantum Physics, which he submitted in 1995. When I went back to France, Shozo Motoyama, of the Department of History of the USP, shared with me his orientation.
- 81.
Dutra (1998).
- 82.
Abrantes (1994).
- 83.
Videira (1992).
- 84.
See, for instance, the special issue of the journal Ciência e Ambiente on Einstein, which he edited: Videira (2005). A. A. Videira organized the archives of the Austro-Argentine Physicist Guido Beck, and has worked on G. Beck’s life and on the History of the CBPF (Brazilian Centre for Research in Physics), a prestigious and efficient Institution founded some 60 years ago. He organized together with the Physicist H. Moysés Nussensveig a Guido Beck Symposium, in Rio, 1994 (Nussensveig & Videira (1994)).
- 85.
Mendonça (2008).
- 86.
See also French & Krause (2006).
- 87.
See in particular: Costa & Doria (1991), and the references quoted in F. & M. Doria’s paper.
- 88.
On this discussion, see Gödel’s contribution and Einstein’s “Reply…” in P. A. Schilpp (ed.), Albert Einstein, Philosopher and Scientist,. I have analyzed Gödel’s views and Einstein’s and Jacques Merleau-Ponty’s comments about them in: Paty, M., La nature du temps cosmologique selon Jacques Merleau-Ponty, in Bachta, Abdelkader (éd.), Jacques Merleau-Ponty: une pensée multiple, Centre de Publications Universitaires, Tunis, 2006, p. 119–159.
- 89.
See also: Costa & French (2003),
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Paty, M. (2011). Introduction. In: Krause, D., Videira, A. (eds) Brazilian Studies in Philosophy and History of Science. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol 290. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9422-3_1
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