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Punishment as Part of Modern Criminal Law Theory

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The Right to Be Punished

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Abstract

An integral part of any criminal law theory is punishment. Criminal law theory includes not only the law for imposing criminal liability but also the law of punishment. Punishment is the infliction of suffering on the offender for committing an offense. As discussed below, this definition is based on a retributive view of punishment. Three other views look at punishment from the perspective of deterrence, rehabilitation, and incapacitation. The type of punishment may vary in different societies and at different times, but its essence, an expression of condemnation for the commission of an offense, remains constant.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Jerome Hall, General Principles of Criminal Law 296–324 (2nd ed., 1960, 2005).

  2. 2.

    Chris Scarre, The Human Past: World Prehistory and the Development of Human Societies (2005); Chris Gosden, Prehistory: A Very Short Introduction (2003).

  3. 3.

    Maureen A. Hays and Paul T. Thacker, Questioning the Answers: Re-Solving Fundamental Problems of the Early Upper Palaeolithic (2001); Olga Soffer and N. D. Praslov, From Kostenki to Clovis: Upper Paleolithic - Paleo-Indians Adaptations (2001).

  4. 4.

    Bernard Wailes, Craft Specialization and Social Evolution: In Memory of V. Gordon Childe (1996).

  5. 5.

    Steven Mithen, After the Ice: A Global Human History 20,000–5,000 BC (2003).

  6. 6.

    Sylvie Philibert, Les Derniers “Sauvages”: Territoires Economiques et Systemes Techno-fonctionnels Mesolithiques (2002); J. V. S. Megaw, Hunters, Gatherers and First Farmers Beyond Europe: An Archaeological Survey (1977).

  7. 7.

    James Mellaart, Earliest Civilizations of the Near East 81–101 (1965); Louis Mumford, The City in History (1961); Colin Wilson, A Criminal History of Mankind 103–104 (2nd ed., 2005).

  8. 8.

    Peter Bellwood, First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies (2004).

  9. 9.

    Russ VerSteeg, Early Mesopotamian Law 126 (2000); G. R. Driver and John C. Miles, The Babylonian Laws, Vol. I: Legal Commentary 495–496 (1952): “The capital penalty is most often expressed by saying that the offender ‘shall be killed’…; this occurs seventeen times in the thirty-four sections. A second form of expression, which occurs five times, is that ‘they shall kill’… the offender”.

  10. 10.

    Law 25 of the Code of Hammurabi (L. W. King trans.) provided: “If fire breaks out in a house, and some one who comes to put it out cast his eye upon the property of the owner of the house, and takes the property of the master of the house, he shall be thrown into that self-same fire”; Law 110 of the Code of Hammurabi (L. W. King trans.) provided: “If a ‘sister of a god’ opens a tavern, or enters a tavern to drink, then shall this woman be burned to death”; Law 157 of the Code of Hammurabi (L. W. King trans.) provided: “If any one be guilty of incest with his mother after his father, both shall be burned”.

  11. 11.

    Law 153 of the Code of Hammurabi (L. W. King trans.) provided: “If the wife of one man on account of another man has their mates (her husband and the other man’s wife) murdered, both of them shall be impaled”.

  12. 12.

    Versteeg, supra note 9, at p. 127; Driver and Miles, supra note 9, at pp. 500–501.

  13. 13.

    Versteeg, ibid, at p. 127; Law 154 of the Code of Hammurabi (L. W. King trans.) provided: “If a man be guilty of incest with his daughter, he shall be driven from the place, exiled”.

  14. 14.

    Versteeg, ibid, at p. 127; Law 202 of the Code of Hammurabi (L. W. King trans.) provided: “If any one strikes the body of a man higher in rank than he, he shall receive 60 blows with an ox-whip in public”.

  15. 15.

    Samuel Greengus, Legal and Social Institutions of Ancient Mesopotamia, 1 Civilizations of the Ancient Near East 469, 474 (Jack M. Sasson ed., 1995).

  16. 16.

    Law 108 of the Code of Hammurabi (L. W. King trans.) provided: “If a tavern-keeper (feminine) does not accept corn according to gross weight in payment of drink, but takes money, and the price of the drink is less than that of the corn, she shall be convicted and thrown into the water”; Law 133 of the Code of Hammurabi (L. W. King trans.) provided: “If a man is taken prisoner in war, and there is sustenance in his house, but his wife leaves house and court, and goes to another house: because this wife did not keep her court, and went to another house, she shall be judicially condemned and thrown into the water”; Law 143 of the Code of Hammurabi (L. W. King trans.) provided: “If she is not innocent, but leaves her husband, and ruins her house, neglecting her husband, this woman shall be cast into the water”.

  17. 17.

    H.W.F. Saggs, The Greatness That Was Babylon 194 (1962).

  18. 18.

    Stephen C. Todd, The Shape of Athenian Law 139 (1995).

  19. 19.

    Russell Meiggs and David M. Lewis, A Selection of Greek Historical Inscriptions to the End of the Fifth Century BC 52 (1988); Charles W. Fornara, Archaic Times to the End of the Peloponnesian War 103 (2nd ed., 1983).

  20. 20.

    Todd, supra note 18, at p. 141.

  21. 21.

    Christopher Gill, The Death of Socrates, 23 CQ 25 (1973).

  22. 22.

    I. Barkan, Capital Punishment in Ancient Athens (1935); Louis Gernet, Sur l’exécution Capitale: à propos d’un Ouvrage Récent, 37 REG 261 (1924); Louis Gernet, The Anthropology of Ancient Greece (1981).

  23. 23.

    Todd, supra note 18, at pp. 143–144.

  24. 24.

    Alick Robin W. Harrison, The Laws of Athens 173–175 (1968).

  25. 25.

    Douglas M. MacDowell, The Law in Classical Athens 257 (1978).

  26. 26.

    Digesta, 47.21.1; Modestinus, 8 reg; Codex Justinianus, 9.2.1.

  27. 27.

    Collatio Mosaicarum et Romanarum Legum, 8.5.1; Digesta, 48.10.1.13; Modestinus, 3 de poenis.

  28. 28.

    Digesta, 48.8.3.5; Pauli Sententiae, 5.23.1.

  29. 29.

    Digesta, 48.9.1,3.

  30. 30.

    Digesta, 23.2.48.1; Ulpian, reg. 16.2; Pauli Sententiae, 2.26.14.

  31. 31.

    Digesta, 34.9.13; Papinian, 32 quaest.

  32. 32.

    Digesta, 22.5.14; Papinian, de adulteriis; Ulpian, 1 ad Sab.

  33. 33.

    Digesta, 47.11.1.2; Codex Theodosianus, 11.36.4; Codex Justinianus, 9.9.9, 9.9.29.

  34. 34.

    Digesta, 48.4.9.

  35. 35.

    Victor J. Pospishil, Eastern Catholic Church Law 745–757 (2nd ed., 1996); Richard H. Helmholz, The Spirit of Classical Canon Law 366–393 (1996).

  36. 36.

    Grundgesetz, Art. 102.

  37. 37.

    Article 38 of the German Penal Code provides: “(1) Die Freiheitsstrafe ist zeitig, wenn das Gesetz nicht lebenslange Freiheitsstrafe androht; (2) Das Höchstmaß der zeitigen Freiheitsstrafe ist fünfzehn Jahre, ihr Mindestmaß ein Monat”; Article 39 of the German Penal Code provides: “Freiheitsstrafe unter einem Jahr wird nach vollen Wochen und Monaten, Freiheitsstrafe von längerer Dauer nach vollen Monaten und Jahren bemessen”.

  38. 38.

    See articles 40–43 of the German Penal Code.

  39. 39.

    See article 44 of the German Penal Code.

  40. 40.

    See articles 131-1 and 131-3 of the French Penal Code.

  41. 41.

    Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act, 1965, c.71.

  42. 42.

    Criminal Justice Act, 2003, c.44.

  43. 43.

    The 8th amendment of the United States Federal Constitution provides: “Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted”.

  44. 44.

    In re Kemmler, 136 U.S. 436, 10 S.Ct. 930, 34 L.Ed. 519 (1890); Provenzano v. Moore, 744 So.2d 413 (Fla. 1999).

  45. 45.

    Dutton v. State, 123 Md. 373, 91 A. 417 (1914); Campbell v. Wood, 18 F.3d 662 (9th Cir. 1994).

  46. 46.

    Wilkerson v. Utah, 99 U.S. (9 Otto) 130, 25 L.Ed. 345 (1878).

  47. 47.

    People v. Daugherty, 40 Cal.2d 876, 256 P.2d 911 (1953); Gray v. Lucas, 710 F.2d 1048 (5th Cir. 1983); Hunt v. Nuth, 57 F.3d 1327 (4th Cir. 1995).

  48. 48.

    Gregg v. Georgia, 428 U.S. 153, S.Ct. 2909, 49 L.Ed.2d 859 (1979): “…imposition of the death penalty for the crime of murder has a long history of acceptance both in the United States and England”.

  49. 49.

    Gabriel Hallevy, A Modern Treatise on the Principle of Legality in Criminal Law 16–17 (2010).

  50. 50.

    See examples for theft offenses, e.g., in Britain article 4(2)(b) of the Theft Act, 1978, c.31 provides: “A person convicted on indictment shall be liable- (a)… (b) for an offence under Section 3 of this Act, to imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years”; in Germany subsection 242(1) of the German Penal Code provides: “Wer eine fremde bewegliche Sache einem anderen in der Absicht wegnimmt, die Sache sich oder einem Dritten rechtswidrig zuzueignen, wird mit Freiheitsstrafe bis zu fünf Jahren oder mit Geldstrafe bestraft”; and in France article 311-3 of the French Penal Code provides: “Le vol est puni de trois ans d‘emprisonnement et de 45,000 euros d‘amende”.

  51. 51.

    Exodus 20:13.

  52. 52.

    See, e.g., George P. Fletcher, The Grammar of Criminal Law – American, Comparative and International, Volume One: Foundations 69–73 (2007).

  53. 53.

    Jerome Hall, General Principles of Criminal Law 296–321 (2nd ed., 1960, 2005).

  54. 54.

    Below at paragraph 3.2.3.2.

  55. 55.

    Frances F. Berdan, The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An Imperial Society (2nd ed., 2005).

  56. 56.

    Wayne R. LaFave, Criminal Law 34 (4th ed., 2003).

  57. 57.

    Section 1 of the Criminal Law Act, 1967, c.58 provides: “(1) All distinctions between felony and misdemeanour are hereby abolished. (2) Subject to the provisions of this Act, on all matters on which a distinction has previously been made between felony and misdemeanour, including mode of trial, the law and practice in relation to all offences cognizable under the law of England and Wales (including piracy) shall be the law and practice applicable at the commencement of this Act in relation to misdemeanour”.

  58. 58.

    Section 2 of the Criminal Law Act, 1967, c.58, as amended by section 24 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act, 1984, c.60, defines “arrestable offence” as “for which the sentence is fixed by law or for which a person (not previously convicted) may be sentenced for a term of five years (or might be so sentenced but for the restrictions imposed by s. 33 of the Magistrates’ Courts Act 1980), and to attempts to commit any such offence”. See in addition section 3 of the Criminal Law Act, 1977, c.45.

  59. 59.

    State v. Nagel, 98 Idaho 129, 559 P.2d 308 (1977); Rivett v. State, 578 P.2d 946 (Alaska, 1978); United States v. Schutte, 610 F.2d 698 (10th Cir.1979); Commonwealth v. Rhodes, 920 S.W.2d 531 (Ky.App.1996).

  60. 60.

    Smith v. Hern, 102 Kan. 373, 170 P. 990 (1918); Pierce v. State, 96 Okl.Cr. 76, 248 P.2d 633 (1952); State v. Merrifield, 180 Kan. 267, 303 P.2d 155 (1956).

  61. 61.

    Article 111-1 of the French Penal Code provides: “Les infractions pénales sont classées, suivant leur gravité, en crimes, délits et contraventions”. The penalties for crimes are in articles 131-1, 131-2, 131-10 and 131-11 of the French Penal Code, the penalties for délits are in articles 131-3 to 131-11, and the penalties for contraventions are in articles 131-12 to 131-18.

  62. 62.

    Section 12 of the German Penal Code provides: “(1) Verbrechen sind rechtswidrige Taten, die im Mindestmaß mit Freiheitsstrafe von einem Jahr oder darüber bedroht sind; (2) Vergehen sind rechtswidrige Taten, die im Mindestmaß mit einer geringeren Freiheitsstrafe oder die mit Geldstrafe bedroht sind; (3) Schärfungen oder Milderungen, die nach den Vorschriften des Allgemeinen Teils oder für besonders schwere oder minder schwere Fälle vorgesehen sind, bleiben für die Einteilung außer Betracht”.

  63. 63.

    Gesetz über Ordnungswidrigkeiten (BGBl. I, S. 602).

  64. 64.

    Volker Krey, Deutsches Strafrecht Allgemeiner Teil, Teil I: Grundlagen 133–138 (2002).

  65. 65.

    Above at paragraph 1.2.1.

  66. 66.

    For the prohibition on retroactivity within the principle of legality in criminal law see Gabriel Hallevy, A Modern Treatise on the Principle of Legality in Criminal Law 49–80 (2010).

  67. 67.

    Ibid, at pp. 39–42.

  68. 68.

    Ibid, at pp. 56–58.

  69. 69.

    For the principle of personal liability see Gabriel Hallevy, The Matrix of Derivative Criminal Liability 1–61 (2012).

  70. 70.

    Gabriel Hallevy, Is ADR (Alternative Dispute Resolution) Philosophy Relevant to Criminal Justice? – Plea Bargains as Mediation Process between the Accused and the Prosecution, 5 Or. L. Rev. 1 (2009); Gabriel Hallevy, The Defense Attorney as Mediator in Plea Bargains, 9 Pepp. Disp. Resol. L. J. 495 (2009).

  71. 71.

    Andrew Ashworth, Sentencing and Criminal Justice 33–35 (4th ed., 2005).

  72. 72.

    Stephen J. Morse, Diminished Capacity, Action and Value in Criminal Law 239 (Stephen Shute, John Gardner and Jeremy Horder eds., 2003).

  73. 73.

    Michael Allen, Textbook on Criminal Law 146–157 (10th ed., 2009); Subsection 2(1) of the Homicide Act, 1957, c.11 provides: “Where a person kills or is a party to the killing of another, he shall not be convicted of murder if he was suffering from such abnormality of mind (whether arising from a condition of arrested or retarded development of mind or any inherent causes or induced by disease or injury) as substantially impaired his mental responsibility for his acts and omissions in doing or being a party to the killing”; Byrne, [1960] 2 Q.B. 396, [1960] 3 All E.R. 1, [1960] 3 W.L.R. 440, 44 Cr. App. Rep. 246; Wood, [2008] E.W.C.A. Crim. 1305, [2008] 3 All E.R. 898; Dietschmann, [2003] U.K.H.L. 10, [2003] 1 A.C. 1209, [2003] 1 All E.R. 897, [2003] 2 Cr. App. Rep. 54.

  74. 74.

    For mandatory sentencing and mandatory minimum sentencing see below at paragraph 4.3.2.

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  1. Faculty of Law, Ono Academic College, Kiryat Ono, Israel

    Gabriel Hallevy

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Hallevy, G. (2013). Punishment as Part of Modern Criminal Law Theory. In: The Right to Be Punished. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32388-1_1

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