Abstract
The main task of immune system is to protect the body against infections. When an antigen is recognized as a nonself by the immune system, a highly dynamic cascade of reactions will begin which includes both innate and adaptive immune responses. These mechanisms should be firmly controlled because exaggerated response to foreign antigens and/or improper response against self-antigens can result in autoimmunity. Various cells and mediator molecules are involved in the regulation of immune system. The complexity of this system makes it prone to many genetic defects resulting in increased susceptibility to infections and/or autoimmune disorders.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Torgerson TR (2008) Immune dysregulation in primary immunodeficiency disorders. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 28(2):315–327, viii–ix
Halonen M, Eskelin P, Myhre AG, Perheentupa J, Husebye ES, Kampe O, Rorsman F, Peltonen L, Ulmanen I, Partanen J (2002) AIRE mutations and human leukocyte antigen genotypes as determinants of the autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy phenotype. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87(6):2568–2574
Torgerson TR, Ochs HD (2007) Immune dysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X-linked: forkhead box protein 3 mutations and lack of regulatory T cells. J Allergy Clin Immunol 120(4):744–750, quiz 751–742
Stepp SE, Dufourcq-Lagelouse R, Le Deist F, Bhawan S, Certain S, Mathew PA, Henter JI, Bennett M, Fischer A, de Basile Saint G, Kumar V (1999) Perforin gene defects in familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Science 286(5446):1957–1959
Feldmann J, Callebaut I, Raposo G, Certain S, Bacq D, Dumont C, Lambert N, Ouachee-Chardin M, Chedeville G, Tamary H, Minard-Colin V, Vilmer E, Blanche S, Le Deist F, Fischer A, de Basile Saint G (2003) Munc13-4 is essential for cytolytic granules fusion and is mutated in a form of familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (FHL3). Cell 115(4):461–473
Zur Stadt U, Schmidt S, Kasper B, Beutel K, Diler AS, Henter JI, Kabisch H, Schneppenheim R, Nurnberg P, Janka G, Hennies HC (2005) Linkage of familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (FHL) type-4 to chromosome 6q24 and identification of mutations in syntaxin 11. Hum Mol Genet 14(6):827–834
Zhang K, Jordan MB, Marsh RA, Johnson JA, Kissell D, Meller J, Villanueva J, Risma KA, Wei Q, Klein PS, Filipovich AH (2011) Hypomorphic mutations in PRF1, MUNC13-4, and STXBP2 are associated with adult-onset familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Blood 118(22):5794–8, Epub 2011 Aug 31
Ward DM, Shiflett SL, Kaplan J (2002) Chediak-Higashi syndrome: a clinical and molecular view of a rare lysosomal storage disorder. Curr Mol Med 2(5):469–477
Menasche G, Pastural E, Feldmann J, Certain S, Ersoy F, Dupuis S, Wulffraat N, Bianchi D, Fischer A, Le Deist F, de Basile Saint G (2000) Mutations in RAB27A cause Griscelli syndrome associated with haemophagocytic syndrome. Nat Genet 25(2):173–176
Enders A, Zieger B, Schwarz K, Yoshimi A, Speckmann C, Knoepfle EM, Kontny U, Muller C, Nurden A, Rohr J, Henschen M, Pannicke U, Niemeyer C, Nurden P, Ehl S (2006) Lethal hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome type II. Blood 108(1):81–87
Neeft M, Wieffer M, de Jong AS, Negroiu G, Metz CH, van Loon A, Griffith J, Krijgsveld J, Wulffraat N, Koch H, Heck AJ, Brose N, Kleijmeer M, van der Sluijs P (2005) Munc13-4 is an effector of rab27a and controls secretion of lysosomes in hematopoietic cells. Mol Biol Cell 16(2):731–741
Menager MM, Menasche G, Romao M, Knapnougel P, Ho CH, Garfa M, Raposo G, Feldmann J, Fischer A, de Basile Saint G (2007) Secretory cytotoxic granule maturation and exocytosis require the effector protein hMunc13-4. Nat Immunol 8(3):257–267
Wei ML (2006) Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome: a disease of protein trafficking and organelle function. Pigment Cell Res 19(1):19–42
Cullinane AR, Curry JA, Carmona-Rivera C, Summers CG, Ciccone C, Cardillo ND, Dorward H, Hess RA, White JG, Adams D, Huizing M, Gahl WA (2011) A BLOC-1 mutation screen reveals that PLDN is mutated in Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome type 9. Am J Hum Genet 88(6):778–787
Bohn G, Welte K, Klein C (2007) Severe congenital neutropenia: new genes explain an old disease. Curr Opin Rheumatol 19(6):644–650
Thielen N, Huizing M, Krabbe JG, White JG, Jansen TJ, Merle PA, Gahl WA, Zweegman S (2010) Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome: the importance of molecular subtyping. J Thromb Haemost 8(7):1643–1645
Jung J, Bohn G, Allroth A, Boztug K, Brandes G, Sandrock I, Schaffer AA, Rathinam C, Kollner I, Beger C, Schilke R, Welte K, Grimbacher B, Klein C (2006) Identification of a homozygous deletion in the AP3B1 gene causing Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome, type 2. Blood 108(1):362–369
Clark RH, Stinchcombe JC, Day A, Blott E, Booth S, Bossi G, Hamblin T, Davies EG, Griffiths GM (2003) Adaptor protein 3-dependent microtubule-mediated movement of lytic granules to the immunological synapse. Nat Immunol 4(11):1111–1120
Fontana S, Parolini S, Vermi W, Booth S, Gallo F, Donini M, Benassi M, Gentili F, Ferrari D, Notarangelo LD, Cavadini P, Marcenaro E, Dusi S, Cassatella M, Facchetti F, Griffiths GM, Moretta A, Badolato R (2006) Innate immunity defects in Hermansky-Pudlak type 2 syndrome. Blood 107(12):4857–4864
Badolato R, Parolini S (2007) Novel insights from adaptor protein 3 complex deficiency. J Allergy Clin Immunol 120(4):735–741, quiz 742–743
Rozenszajn LA, David EB, Sela SB (1977) Large granules and lysosomal fusion in human Chediak-Higashi white blood cells. Acta Haematol 57(5):279–289
Rubin CM, Burke BA, McKenna RW, McClain KL, White JG, Nesbit ME Jr, Filipovich AH (1985) The accelerated phase of Chediak-Higashi syndrome. An expression of the virus-associated hemophagocytic syndrome? Cancer 56(3):524–530
Trottestam H, Beutel K, Meeths M, Carlsen N, Heilmann C, Pasic S, Webb D, Hasle H, Henter JI (2009) Treatment of the X-linked lymphoproliferative, Griscelli and Chediak-Higashi syndromes by HLH directed therapy. Pediatr Blood Cancer 52(2):268–272
Henter JI, Elinder G, Ost A (1991) Diagnostic guidelines for hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. The FHL Study Group of the Histiocyte Society. Semin Oncol 18(1):29–33
Henter JI, Horne A, Arico M, Egeler RM, Filipovich AH, Imashuku S, Ladisch S, McClain K, Webb D, Winiarski J, Janka G (2007) HLH-2004: diagnostic and therapeutic guidelines for hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Pediatr Blood Cancer 48(2):124–131
Imashuku S (2000) Advances in the management of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Int J Hematol 72(1):1–11
Janka GE, Schneider EM (2004) Modern management of children with haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Br J Haematol 124(1):4–14
Janka GE (2007) Hemophagocytic syndromes. Blood Rev 21(5):245–253
Janka G, Imashuku S, Elinder G, Schneider M, Henter JI (1998) Infection- and malignancy-associated hemophagocytic syndromes. Secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 12(2):435–444
Ishii E, Ohga S, Imashuku S, Yasukawa M, Tsuda H, Miura I, Yamamoto K, Horiuchi H, Takada K, Ohshima K, Nakamura S, Kinukawa N, Oshimi K, Kawa K (2007) Nationwide survey of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in Japan. Int J Hematol 86(1):58–65
Cetica V, Pende D, Griffiths GM, Arico M (2010) Molecular basis of familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Haematologica 95(4):538–541
Booth C, Gilmour KC, Veys P, Gennery AR, Slatter MA, Chapel H, Heath PT, Steward CG, Smith O, O’Meara A, Kerrigan H, Mahlaoui N, Cavazzana-Calvo M, Fischer A, Moshous D, Blanche S, Pachlopnick-Schmid J, Latour S, de Saint-Basile G, Albert M, Notheis G, Rieber N, Strahm B, Ritterbusch H, Lankester A, Hartwig NG, Meyts I, Plebani A, Soresina A, Finocchi A, Pignata C, Cirillo E, Bonanomi S, Peters C, Kalwak K, Pasic S, Sedlacek P, Jazbec J, Kanegane H, Nichols KE, Hanson IC, Kapoor N, Haddad E, Cowan M, Choo S, Smart J, Arkwright PD, Gaspar HB (2011) X-linked lymphoproliferative disease due to SAP/SH2D1A deficiency: a multicenter study on the manifestations, management and outcome of the disease. Blood 117(1):53–62
Marsh RA, Madden L, Kitchen BJ, Mody R, McClimon B, Jordan MB, Bleesing JJ, Zhang K, Filipovich AH (2010) XIAP deficiency: a unique primary immunodeficiency best classified as X-linked familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis and not as X-linked lymphoproliferative disease. Blood 116(7):1079–1082
Ueda I, Ishii E, Morimoto A, Ohga S, Sako M, Imashuku S (2006) Correlation between phenotypic heterogeneity and gene mutational characteristics in familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (FHL). Pediatr Blood Cancer 46(4):482–488
Marcenaro S, Gallo F, Martini S, Santoro A, Griffiths GM, Arico M, Moretta L, Pende D (2006) Analysis of natural killer-cell function in familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (FHL): defective CD107a surface expression heralds Munc13-4 defect and discriminates between genetic subtypes of the disease. Blood 108(7):2316–2323
Meeths M, Entesarian M, Al-Herz W, Chiang SC, Wood SM, Al-Ateeqi W, Almazan F, Boelens JJ, Hasle H, Ifversen M, Lund B, van den Berg JM, Gustafsson B, Hjelmqvist H, Nordenskjold M, Bryceson YT, Henter JI (2010) Spectrum of clinical presentations in familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis type 5 patients with mutations in STXBP2. Blood 116(15):2635–2643
Ueda I, Kurokawa Y, Koike K, Ito S, Sakata A, Matsumora T, Fukushima T, Morimoto A, Ishii E, Imashuku S (2007) Late-onset cases of familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis with missense perforin gene mutations. Am J Hematol 82(6):427–432
Rudd E, Bryceson YT, Zheng C, Edner J, Wood SM, Ramme K, Gavhed S, Gurgey A, Hellebostad M, Bechensteen AG, Ljunggren HG, Fadeel B, Nordenskjold M, Henter JI (2008) Spectrum, and clinical and functional implications of UNC13D mutations in familial haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. J Med Genet 45(3):134–141
Bryceson YT, Rudd E, Zheng C, Edner J, Ma D, Wood SM, Bechensteen AG, Boelens JJ, Celkan T, Farah RA, Hultenby K, Winiarski J, Roche PA, Nordenskjold M, Henter JI, Long EO, Ljunggren HG (2007) Defective cytotoxic lymphocyte degranulation in syntaxin-11 deficient familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis 4 (FHL4) patients. Blood 110(6):1906–1915
Rezaei N, Hedayat M, Aghamohammadi A, Nichols KE (2011) Primary immunodeficiency diseases associated with increased susceptibility to viral infections and malignancies. J Allergy Clin Immunol 127(6):1329–1341.e1322, quiz 1342–1343
Gismondi A, Cifaldi L, Mazza C, Giliani S, Parolini S, Morrone S, Jacobelli J, Bandiera E, Notarangelo L, Santoni A (2004) Impaired natural and CD16-mediated NK cell cytotoxicity in patients with WAS and XLT: ability of IL-2 to correct NK cell functional defect. Blood 104(2):436–443
Argov S, Johnson DR, Collins M, Koren HS, Lipscomb H, Purtilo DT (1986) Defective natural killing activity but retention of lymphocyte-mediated antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity in patients with the X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome. Cell Immunol 100(1):1–9
Endt J, Eissmann P, Hoffmann SC, Meinke S, Giese T, Watzl C (2007) Modulation of 2B4 (CD244) activity and regulated SAP expression in human NK cells. Eur J Immunol 37(1):193–198
Katz P, Zaytoun AM, Fauci AS (1982) Deficiency of active natural killer cells in the Chediak-Higashi syndrome. Localization of the defect using a single cell cytotoxicity assay. J Clin Invest 69(6):1231–1238
Eife R, Janka GE, Belohradsky BH, Holtmann H (1989) Natural killer cell function and interferon production in familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Pediatr Hematol Oncol 6(3):265–272
Imashuku S, Hyakuna N, Funabiki T, Ikuta K, Sako M, Iwai A, Fukushima T, Kataoka S, Yabe M, Muramatsu K, Kohdera U, Nakadate H, Kitazawa K, Toyoda Y, Ishii E (2002) Low natural killer activity and central nervous system disease as a high-risk prognostic indicator in young patients with hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Cancer 94(11):3023–3031
Horne A, Zheng C, Lorenz I, Lofstedt M, Montgomery SM, Janka G, Henter JI, Marion Schneider E (2005) Subtyping of natural killer cell cytotoxicity deficiencies in haemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis provides therapeutic guidance. Br J Haematol 129(5):658–666
Imashuku S (2002) Clinical features and treatment strategies of Epstein-Barr virus-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 44(3):259–272
Mischler M, Fleming GM, Shanley TP, Madden L, Levine J, Castle V, Filipovich AH, Cornell TT (2007) Epstein-Barr virus-induced hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis and X-linked lymphoproliferative disease: a mimicker of sepsis in the pediatric intensive care unit. Pediatrics 119(5):e1212–1218
Beutel K, Gross-Wieltsch U, Wiesel T, Stadt UZ, Janka G, Wagner HJ (2009) Infection of T lymphocytes in Epstein-Barr virus-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in children of non-Asian origin. Pediatr Blood Cancer 53(2):184–190
Huck K, Feyen O, Niehues T, Ruschendorf F, Hubner N, Laws HJ, Telieps T, Knapp S, Wacker HH, Meindl A, Jumaa H, Borkhardt A (2009) Girls homozygous for an IL-2-inducible T cell kinase mutation that leads to protein deficiency develop fatal EBV-associated lymphoproliferation. J Clin Invest 119(5):1350–1358
Okano M, Kawa K, Kimura H, Yachie A, Wakiguchi H, Maeda A, Imai S, Ohga S, Kanegane H, Tsuchiya S, Morio T, Mori M, Yokota S, Imashuku S (2005) Proposed guidelines for diagnosing chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection. Am J Hematol 80(1):64–69
Kasahara Y, Yachie A, Takei K, Kanegane C, Okada K, Ohta K, Seki H, Igarashi N, Maruhashi K, Katayama K, Katoh E, Terao G, Sakiyama Y, Koizumi S (2001) Differential cellular targets of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection between acute EBV-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis and chronic active EBV infection. Blood 98(6):1882–1888
Yoshiyama M, Kounami S, Nakayama K, Aoyagi N, Yoshikawa N (2008) Clinical assessment of Mycoplasma pneumoniae-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Pediatr Int 50(4):432–435
Schwarzmeier JD (2002) A potentially fatal complication of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection – the hemophagocytic syndrome. Respiration 69(1):14–15
Rajagopala S, Dutta U, Chandra KS, Bhatia P, Varma N, Kochhar R (2008) Visceral leishmaniasis associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis – case report and systematic review. J Infect 56(5):381–388
Kontopoulou T, Tsaousis G, Vaidakis E, Fanourgiakis P, Michalakeas E, Trigoni E, Samarkos M (2002) Hemophagocytic syndrome in association with visceral leishmaniasis. Am J Med 113(5):439–440
Eliopoulos G, Vaiopoulos G, Kittas C, Fessas P (1992) Tuberculosis associated hemophagocytic syndrome complicated with severe bone marrow failure and disseminated intravascular coagulation. Nouv Rev Fr Hematol 34(3):273–276
Goto S, Aoike I, Shibasaki Y, Morita T, Miyazaki S, Shimizu T, Suzuki M (2001) A successfully treated case of disseminated tuberculosis-associated hemophagocytic syndrome and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Am J Kidney Dis 38(4):E19
Imashuku S (2007) Systemic type Epstein-Barr virus-related lymphoproliferative diseases in children and young adults: challenges for pediatric hemato-oncologists and infectious disease specialists. Pediatr Hematol Oncol 24(8):563–568
Kimura H, Morita M, Yabuta Y, Kuzushima K, Kato K, Kojima S, Matsuyama T, Morishima T (1999) Quantitative analysis of Epstein-Barr virus load by using a real-time PCR assay. J Clin Microbiol 37(1):132–136
Teramura T, Tabata Y, Yagi T, Morimoto A, Hibi S, Imashuku S (2002) Quantitative analysis of cell-free Epstein-Barr virus genome copy number in patients with EBV-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Leuk Lymphoma 43(1):173–179
Au WY, Pang A, Choy C, Chim CS, Kwong YL (2004) Quantification of circulating Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) DNA in the diagnosis and monitoring of natural killer cell and EBV-positive lymphomas in immunocompetent patients. Blood 104(1):243–249
Orentas RJ, Rospkopf SJ, Casper JT, Getts RC, Nilsen TW (1999) Detection of Epstein-Barr virus EBER sequence in post-transplant lymphoma patients with DNA dendrimers. J Virol Methods 77(2):153–163
Ocheni S, Kroeger N, Zabelina T, Sobottka I, Ayuk F, Wolschke C, Muth A, Lellek H, Petersen L, Erttmann R, Kabisch H, Zander AR, Bacher U (2008) EBV reactivation and post transplant lymphoproliferative disorders following allogeneic SCT. Bone Marrow Transplant 42(3):181–186
Meijer E, Cornelissen JJ (2008) Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative disease after allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation: molecular monitoring and early treatment of high-risk patients. Curr Opin Hematol 15(6):576–585
Schubert S, Abdul-Khaliq H, Lehmkuhl HB, Yegitbasi M, Reinke P, Kebelmann-Betzig C, Hauptmann K, Gross-Wieltsch U, Hetzer R, Berger F (2009) Diagnosis and treatment of post-transplantation lymphoproliferative disorder in pediatric heart transplant patients. Pediatr Transplant 13(1):54–62
Gross TG (2009) Treatment for Epstein-Barr virus-associated PTLD. Herpes 15(3):64–67
O’Sullivan CE, Peng R, Cole KS, Montelaro RC, Sturgeon T, Jenson HB, Ling PD (2002) Epstein-Barr virus and human immunodeficiency virus serological responses and viral burdens in HIV-infected patients treated with HAART. J Med Virol 67(3):320–326
Bekker V, Scherpbier H, Beld M, Piriou E, van Breda A, Lange J, van Leth F, Jurriaans S, Alders S, Wertheim-van Dillen P, van Baarle D, Kuijpers T (2006) Epstein-Barr virus infects B and non-B lymphocytes in HIV-1-infected children and adolescents. J Infect Dis 194(9):1323–1330
Padeh S, Sharon N, Schiby G, Rechavi G, Passwell JH (1997) Hodgkin’s lymphoma in systemic onset juvenile rheumatoid arthritis after treatment with low dose methotrexate. J Rheumatol 24(10):2035–2037
Said JW (2007) Immunodeficiency-related Hodgkin lymphoma and its mimics. Adv Anat Pathol 14(3):189–194
Tran H, Nourse J, Hall S, Green M, Griffiths L, Gandhi MK (2008) Immunodeficiency-associated lymphomas. Blood Rev 22(5):261–281
Cuneo A, Bigoni R, Rigolin GM, Roberti MG, Milani R, Bardi A, Minotto C, Agostini P, De Angeli C, Narducci MG, Sabbioni S, Russo G, Negrini M, Castoldi G (2000) Acquired chromosome 11q deletion involving the ataxia teleangiectasia locus in B-cell non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma: correlation with clinicobiologic features. J Clin Oncol 18(13):2607–2614
Seidemann K, Henze G, Beck JD, Sauerbrey A, Kuhl J, Mann G, Reiter A (2000) Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma in pediatric patients with chromosomal breakage syndromes (AT and NBS): experience from the BFM trials. Ann Oncol 11(Suppl 1):141–145
Imashuku S, Miyagawa A, Chiyonobu T, Ishida H, Yoshihara T, Teramura T, Kuriyama K, Imamura T, Hibi S, Morimoto A, Todo S (2002) Epstein-Barr virus-associated T-lymphoproliferative disease with hemophagocytic syndrome, followed by fatal intestinal B lymphoma in a young adult female with WHIM syndrome. Warts, hypogammaglobulinemia, infections, and myelokathexis. Ann Hematol 81(8):470–473
Balabanian K, Lagane B, Pablos JL, Laurent L, Planchenault T, Verola O, Lebbe C, Kerob D, Dupuy A, Hermine O, Nicolas JF, Latger-Cannard V, Bensoussan D, Bordigoni P, Baleux F, Le Deist F, Virelizier JL, Arenzana-Seisdedos F, Bachelerie F (2005) WHIM syndromes with different genetic anomalies are accounted for by impaired CXCR4 desensitization to CXCL12. Blood 105(6):2449–2457
Chae KM, Ertle JO, Tharp MD (2001) B-cell lymphoma in a patient with WHIM syndrome. J Am Acad Dermatol 44(1):124–128
Wallet-Faber N, Bodemer C, Blanche S, Delabesse E, Eschard C, Brousse N, Fraitag S (2008) Primary cutaneous Epstein-Barr virus-related lymphoproliferative disorders in 4 immunosuppressed children. J Am Acad Dermatol 58(1):74–80
Modell V, Gee B, Lewis DB, Orange JS, Roifman CM, Routes JM, Sorensen RU, Notarangelo LD, Modell F (2011) Global study of primary immunodeficiency diseases (PI)-diagnosis, treatment, and economic impact: an updated report from the Jeffrey Modell Foundation. Immunol Res 51(1):61–70
Phadke SR, Aggarwal S, Kumari N (2011) The expanding spectrum of Elejalde syndrome: overlap with other disorders of overgrowth. Clin Dysmorphol 20(2):98–101
Cahali JB, Fernandez SA, Oliveira ZN, Machado MC, Valente NS, Sotto MN (2004) Elejalde syndrome: report of a case and review of the literature. Pediatr Dermatol 21(4):479–482
de Vries E (2006) Patient-centred screening for primary immunodeficiency: a multi-stage diagnostic protocol designed for non-immunologists. Clin Exp Immunol 145(2):204–214
Fleisher TA (2007) Evaluation of suspected immunodeficiency. Adv Exp Med Biol 601:291–300
Kharkar V, Pande S, Mahajan S, Dwiwedi R, Khopkar U (2007) Griscelli syndrome: a new phenotype with circumscribed pigment loss? Dermatol Online J 13(2):17
Rao S, Kar R, Saxena R (2009) Pseudo Chediak-Higashi anomaly in acute myelomonocytic leukemia. Indian J Pathol Microbiol 52(2):255–256
Whaley BF (2011) Familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in the neonate. Adv Neonatal Care 11(2):101–107
Pastural E, Barrat FJ, Dufourcq-Lagelouse R, Certain S, Sanal O, Jabado N, Seger R, Griscelli C, Fischer A, de Basile Saint G (1997) Griscelli disease maps to chromosome 15q21 and is associated with mutations in the myosin-Va gene. Nat Genet 16(3):289–292
Menasche G, Ho CH, Sanal O, Feldmann J, Tezcan I, Ersoy F, Houdusse A, Fischer A, de Basile Saint G (2003) Griscelli syndrome restricted to hypopigmentation results from a melanophilin defect (GS3) or a MYO5A F-exon deletion (GS1). J Clin Invest 112(3):450–456
Janka G, zur Stadt U. Familial and acquired hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program. 2005:82–8
Griscelli C, Prunieras M (1978) Pigment dilution and immunodeficiency: a new syndrome. Int J Dermatol 17(10):788–791
Sneller MC, Dale JK, Straus SE (2003) Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome. Curr Opin Rheumatol 15(4):417–421
Su HC, Lenardo MJ (2008) Genetic defects of apoptosis and primary immunodeficiency. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 28(2):329–351, ix
Carter LB, Procter JL, Dale JK, Straus SE, Cantilena CC (2000) Description of serologic features in autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome. Transfusion 40(8):943–948
Campagnoli MF, Garbarini L, Quarello P, Garelli E, Carando A, Baravalle V, Doria A, Biava A, Chiocchetti A, Rosolen A, Dufour C, Dianzani U, Ramenghi U (2006) The broad spectrum of autoimmune lymphoproliferative disease: molecular bases, clinical features and long-term follow-up in 31 patients. Haematologica 91(4):538–541
Su HC, de Oliveira JB, Leonardo MJ (2008) Programmed cell death in lymphocytes. In: Rich RR, Shearer WT, Fleisher TA, Schroeder H, Weyand C, Frew AJ (eds) Clinical immunology: principles and practice, 3rd edn. Mosby, Philadelphia
Puck JM, Rieux-Laucat F, Deist FL, Straus SE (2007) Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome. In: Ochs HD, Smith CID, Puck JM (eds) Primary immunodeficiency diseases, a molecular and genetic approach, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 326–341
Bleesing JJ, Straus SE, Fleisher TA (2000) Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome. A human disorder of abnormal lymphocyte survival. Pediatr Clin North Am 47(6):1291–1310
Kasahara Y, Wada T, Niida Y, Yachie A, Seki H, Ishida Y, Sakai T, Koizumi F, Koizumi S, Miyawaki T, Taniguchi N (1998) Novel FAS (CD95/APO-1) mutations in infants with a lymphoproliferative disorder. Int Immunol 10(2):195–202
Oliveira JB, Bidere N, Niemela JE, Zheng L, Sakai K, Nix CP, Danner RL, Barb J, Munson PJ, Puck JM, Dale J, Straus SE, Fleisher TA, Lenardo MJ (2007) NRAS mutation causes a human autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104(21):8953–8958
Husebye ES, Perheentupa J, Rautemaa R, Kampe O (2009) Clinical manifestations and management of patients with autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type I. J Intern Med 265(5):514–529
Kumar PG, Laloraya M, She JX (2002) Population genetics and functions of the autoimmune regulator (AIRE). Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 31(2):321–338, vi
Meager A, Visvalingam K, Peterson P, Moll K, Murumagi A, Krohn K, Eskelin P, Perheentupa J, Husebye E, Kadota Y, Willcox N (2006) Anti-interferon autoantibodies in autoimmune polyendocrinopathy syndrome type 1. PLoS Med 3(7):e289
Shikama N, Nusspaumer G, Hollander GA (2009) Clearing the AIRE: on the pathophysiological basis of the autoimmune polyendocrinopathy syndrome type-1. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 38(2):273–288, vii
Suzuki E, Kobayashi Y, Kawano O, Endo K, Haneda H, Yukiue H, Sasaki H, Yano M, Maeda M, Fujii Y (2008) Expression of AIRE in thymocytes and peripheral lymphocytes. Autoimmunity 41(2):133–139
Rautemaa R, Hietanen J, Niissalo S, Pirinen S, Perheentupa J (2007) Oral and oesophageal squamous cell carcinoma – a complication or component of autoimmune polyendocrinopathy-candidiasis-ectodermal dystrophy (APECED, APS-I). Oral Oncol 43(6):607–613
Purtilo DT, Cassel CK, Yang JP, Harper R (1975) X-linked recessive progressive combined variable immunodeficiency (Duncan’s disease). Lancet 1(7913):935–940
Marodi L, Notarangelo LD (2007) Immunological and genetic bases of new primary immunodeficiencies. Nat Rev Immunol 7(11):851–861
Sumegi J, Seemayer TA, Huang D, Davis JR, Morra M, Gross TG, Yin L, Romco G, Klein E, Terhorst C, Lanyi A (2002) A spectrum of mutations in SH2D1A that causes X-linked lymphoproliferative disease and other Epstein-Barr virus-associated illnesses. Leuk Lymphoma 43(6):1189–1201
Brandau O, Schuster V, Weiss M, Hellebrand H, Fink FM, Kreczy A, Friedrich W, Strahm B, Niemeyer C, Belohradsky BH, Meindl A (1999) Epstein-Barr virus-negative boys with non-Hodgkin lymphoma are mutated in the SH2D1A gene, as are patients with X-linked lymphoproliferative disease (XLP). Hum Mol Genet 8(13):2407–2413
Seemayer TA, Gross TG, Egeler RM, Pirruccello SJ, Davis JR, Kelly CM, Okano M, Lanyi A, Sumegi J (1995) X-linked lymphoproliferative disease: twenty-five years after the discovery. Pediatr Res 38(4):471–478
Benoit L, Wang X, Pabst HF, Dutz J, Tan R (2000) Defective NK cell activation in X-linked lymphoproliferative disease. J Immunol 165(7):3549–3553
Sayos J, Wu C, Morra M, Wang N, Zhang X, Allen D, van Schaik S, Notarangelo L, Geha R, Roncarolo MG, Oettgen H, De Vries JE, Aversa G, Terhorst C (1998) The X-linked lymphoproliferative-disease gene product SAP regulates signals induced through the co-receptor SLAM. Nature 395(6701):462–469
Sumegi J, Huang D, Lanyi A, Davis JD, Seemayer TA, Maeda A, Klein G, Seri M, Wakiguchi H, Purtilo DT, Gross TG (2000) Correlation of mutations of the SH2D1A gene and epstein-barr virus infection with clinical phenotype and outcome in X-linked lymphoproliferative disease. Blood 96(9):3118–3125
Erdos M, Uzvolgyi E, Nemes Z, Torok O, Rakoczi E, Went-Sumegi N, Sumegi J, Marodi L (2005) Characterization of a new disease-causing mutation of SH2D1A in a family with X-linked lymphoproliferative disease. Hum Mutat 25(5):506
Lindsten T, Seeley JK, Ballow M, Sakamoto K, St Onge S, Yetz J, Aman P, Purtilo DT (1982) Immune deficiency in the X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome. II. Immunoregulatory T cell defects. J Immunol 129(6):2536–2540
Pasquier B, Yin L, Fondaneche MC, Relouzat F, Bloch-Queyrat C, Lambert N, Fischer A, de Saint-Basile G, Latour S (2005) Defective NKT cell development in mice and humans lacking the adapter SAP, the X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome gene product. J Exp Med 201(5):695–701
Yasuda N, Lai PK, Rogers J, Purtlo DT (1991) Defective control of Epstein-Barr virus-infected B cell growth in patients with X-linked lymphoproliferative disease. Clin Exp Immunol 83(1):10–16
Purtilo DT, Grierson HL, Davis JR, Okano M (1991) The X-linked lymphoproliferative disease: from autopsy toward cloning the gene 1975-1990. Pediatr Pathol 11(5):685–710
Migliorati R, Castaldo A, Russo S, Porta F, Fiorillo A, Guida S, Poggi V, Guarino A (1994) Treatment of EBV-induced lymphoproliferative disorder with epipodophyllotoxin VP16-213. Acta Paediatr 83(12):1322–1325
Aghamohammadi A, Lougaris V, Plebani A, Miyawaki T, Durandy A, Hammarström L (2008) Predominantly antibody deficiencies. In: Rezaei N, Aghamohammadi A, Notarangelo LD (eds) Primary immunodeficiency diseases. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg, pp 97–130
Coffey AJ, Brooksbank RA, Brandau O, Oohashi T, Howell GR, Bye JM, Cahn AP, Durham J, Heath P, Wray P, Pavitt R, Wilkinson J, Leversha M, Huckle E, Shaw-Smith CJ, Dunham A, Rhodes S, Schuster V, Porta G, Yin L, Serafini P, Sylla B, Zollo M, Franco B, Bolino A, Seri M, Lanyi A, Davis JR, Webster D, Harris A, Lenoir G, de Basile St G, Jones A, Behloradsky BH, Achatz H, Murken J, Fassler R, Sumegi J, Romeo G, Vaudin M, Ross MT, Meindl A, Bentley DR (1998) Host response to EBV infection in X-linked lymphoproliferative disease results from mutations in an SH2-domain encoding gene. Nat Genet 20(2):129–135
Latour S, Veillette A (2003) Molecular and immunological basis of X-linked lymphoproliferative disease. Immunol Rev 192:212–224
Gilmour KC, Cranston T, Jones A, Davies EG, Goldblatt D, Thrasher A, Kinnon C, Nichols KE, Gaspar HB (2000) Diagnosis of X-linked lymphoproliferative disease by analysis of SLAM-associated protein expression. Eur J Immunol 30(6):1691–1697
Shinozaki K, Kanegane H, Matsukura H, Sumazaki R, Tsuchida M, Makita M, Kimoto Y, Kanai R, Tsumura K, Kondoh T, Moriuchi H, Miyawaki T (2002) Activation-dependent T cell expression of the X-linked lymphoproliferative disease gene product SLAM-associated protein and its assessment for patient detection. Int Immunol 14(10):1215–1223
Rigaud S, Fondaneche MC, Lambert N, Pasquier B, Mateo V, Soulas P, Galicier L, Le Deist F, Rieux-Laucat F, Revy P, Fischer A, de Basile Saint G, Latour S (2006) XIAP deficiency in humans causes an X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome. Nature 444(7115):110–114
Marsh RA, Villanueva J, Zhang K, Snow AL, Su HC, Madden L, Mody R, Kitchen B, Marmer D, Jordan MB, Risma KA, Filipovich AH, Bleesing JJ (2009) A rapid flow cytometric screening test for X-linked lymphoproliferative disease due to XIAP deficiency. Cytometry B Clin Cytom 76(5):334–344
Henter JI, Samuelsson-Horne A, Arico M, Egeler RM, Elinder G, Filipovich AH, Gadner H, Imashuku S, Komp D, Ladisch S, Webb D, Janka G (2002) Treatment of hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis with HLH-94 immunochemotherapy and bone marrow transplantation. Blood 100(7):2367–2373
Milone MC, Tsai DE, Hodinka RL, Silverman LB, Malbran A, Wasik MA, Nichols KE (2005) Treatment of primary Epstein-Barr virus infection in patients with X-linked lymphoproliferative disease using B-cell-directed therapy. Blood 105(3):994–996
Amrolia P, Gaspar HB, Hassan A, Webb D, Jones A, Sturt N, Mieli-Vergani G, Pagliuca A, Mufti G, Hadzic N, Davies G, Veys P (2000) Nonmyeloablative stem cell transplantation for congenital immunodeficiencies. Blood 96(4):1239–1246
Cunningham-Rundles C, Bodian C (1999) Common variable immunodeficiency: clinical and immunological features of 248 patients. Clin Immunol 92(1):34–48
Howie D, Sayos J, Terhorst C, Morra M (2000) The gene defective in X-linked lymphoproliferative disease controls T cell dependent immune surveillance against Epstein-Barr virus. Curr Opin Immunol 12(4):474–478
Aghamohammadi A, Kanegane H, Moein M, Farhoudi A, Pourpak Z, Movahedi M, Gharagozlou M, Zargar AA, Miyawaki T (2003) Identification of an SH2D1A mutation in a hypogammaglobulinemic male patient with a diagnosis of common variable immunodeficiency. Int J Hematol 78(1):45–47
Soresina A, Lougaris V, Giliani S, Cardinale F, Armenio L, Cattalini M, Notarangelo LD, Plebani A (2002) Mutations of the X-linked lymphoproliferative disease gene SH2D1A mimicking common variable immunodeficiency. Eur J Pediatr 161(12):656–659
Engel P, Eck MJ, Terhorst C (2003) The SAP and SLAM families in immune responses and X-linked lymphoproliferative disease. Nat Rev Immunol 3(10):813–821
Mroczek EC, Weisenburger DD, Grierson HL, Markin R, Purtilo DT (1987) Fatal infectious mononucleosis and virus-associated hemophagocytic syndrome. Arch Pathol Lab Med 111(6):530–535
Hugle B, Suchowerskyj P, Hellebrand H, Adler B, Borte M, Sack U, Overberg-Schmidt US, Strnad N, Otto J, Meindl A, Schuster V (2004) Persistent hypogammaglobulinemia following mononucleosis in boys is highly suggestive of X-linked lymphoproliferative disease – report of three cases. J Clin Immunol 24(5):515–522
Harrington DS, Weisenburger DD, Purtilo DT (1987) Malignant lymphoma in the X-linked lymphoproliferative syndrome. Cancer 59(8):1419–1429
Gaspar HB, Sharifi R, Gilmour KC, Thrasher AJ (2002) X-linked lymphoproliferative disease: clinical, diagnostic and molecular perspective. Br J Haematol 119(3):585–595
Dutz JP, Benoit L, Wang X, Demetrick DJ, Junker A, de Sa D, Tan R (2001) Lymphocytic vasculitis in X-linked lymphoproliferative disease. Blood 97(1):95–100
Yin L, Ferrand V, Lavoue MF, Hayoz D, Philippe N, Souillet G, Seri M, Giacchino R, Castagnola E, Hodgson S, Sylla BS, Romeo G (1999) SH2D1A mutation analysis for diagnosis of XLP in typical and atypical patients. Hum Genet 105(5):501–505
Chung B, Aoukaty A, Dutz J, Terhorst C, Tan R (2005) Signaling lymphocytic activation molecule-associated protein controls NKT cell functions. J Immunol 174(6):3153–3157
Purtilo DT (1986) Prevention and treatment of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated lymphoproliferative diseases in immune deficient patients. AIDS Res 2(Suppl 1):S177–181
Schwartzberg PL, Mueller KL, Qi H, Cannons JL (2009) SLAM receptors and SAP influence lymphocyte interactions, development and function. Nat Rev Immunol 9(1):39–46
Ferguson PJ, Blanton SH, Saulsbury FT, McDuffie MJ, Lemahieu V, Gastier JM, Francke U, Borowitz SM, Sutphen JL, Kelly TE (2000) Manifestations and linkage analysis in X-linked autoimmunity-immunodeficiency syndrome. Am J Med Genet 90(5):390–397
Slatter MA, Bhattacharya A, Abinun M, Flood TJ, Cant AJ, Gennery AR (2005) Outcome of boost haemopoietic stem cell transplant for decreased donor chimerism or graft dysfunction in primary immunodeficiency. Bone Marrow Transplant 35(7):683–689
Williams LL, Rooney CM, Conley ME, Brenner MK, Krance RA, Heslop HE (1993) Correction of Duncan’s syndrome by allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Lancet 342(8871):587–588
Ziegner UH, Ochs HD, Schanen C, Feig SA, Seyama K, Futatani T, Gross T, Wakim M, Roberts RL, Rawlings DJ, Dovat S, Fraser JK, Stiehm ER (2001) Unrelated umbilical cord stem cell transplantation for X-linked immunodeficiencies. J Pediatr 138(4):570–573
Gross TG, Filipovich AH, Conley ME, Pracher E, Schmiegelow K, Verdirame JD, Vowels M, Williams LL, Seemayer TA (1996) Cure of X-linked lymphoproliferative disease (XLP) with allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT): report from the XLP registry. Bone Marrow Transplant 17(5):741–744
Ochs HD, Oukka M, Torgerson TR (2009) TH17 cells and regulatory T cells in primary immunodeficiency diseases. J Allergy Clin Immunol 123(5):977–983, quiz 984–985
Chatila TA (2005) Role of regulatory T cells in human diseases. J Allergy Clin Immunol 116(5):949–959, quiz 960
Torgerson TR, Linane A, Moes N, Anover S, Mateo V, Rieux-Laucat F, Hermine O, Vijay S, Gambineri E, Cerf-Bensussan N, Fischer A, Ochs HD, Goulet O, Ruemmele FM (2007) Severe food allergy as a variant of IPEX syndrome caused by a deletion in a noncoding region of the FOXP3 gene. Gastroenterology 132(5):1705–1717
Wildin RS, Smyk-Pearson S, Filipovich AH (2002) Clinical and molecular features of the immunodysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X linked (IPEX) syndrome. J Med Genet 39(8):537–545
Halabi-Tawil M, Ruemmele FM, Fraitag S, Rieux-Laucat F, Neven B, Brousse N, De Prost Y, Fischer A, Goulet O, Bodemer C (2009) Cutaneous manifestations of immune dysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X-linked (IPEX) syndrome. Br J Dermatol 160(3):645–651
Gambineri E, Torgerson TR, Ochs HD (2003) Immune dysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, and X-linked inheritance (IPEX), a syndrome of systemic autoimmunity caused by mutations of FOXP3, a critical regulator of T-cell homeostasis. Curr Opin Rheumatol 15(4):430–435
De Benedetti F, Insalaco A, Diamanti A, Cortis E, Muratori F, Lamioni A, Carsetti R, Cusano R, De Vito R, Perroni L, Gambarara M, Castro M, Bottazzo GF, Ugazio AG (2006) Mechanistic associations of a mild phenotype of immunodysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, x-linked syndrome. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 4(5):653–659
Wildin RS, Freitas A (2005) IPEX and FOXP3: clinical and research perspectives. J Autoimmun 25(Suppl):56–62
Chatila TA, Blaeser F, Ho N, Lederman HM, Voulgaropoulos C, Helms C, Bowcock AM (2000) JM2, encoding a fork head-related protein, is mutated in X-linked autoimmunity-allergic disregulation syndrome. J Clin Invest 106(12):R75–81
Lucas KG, Ungar D, Comito M, Bayerl M, Groh B (2007) Submyeloablative cord blood transplantation corrects clinical defects seen in IPEX syndrome. Bone Marrow Transplant 39(1):55–56
Ozcan E, Notarangelo LD, Geha RS (2008) Primary immune deficiencies with aberrant IgE production. J Allergy Clin Immunol 122(6):1054–1062, quiz 1063–1064
Whitelaw DA, Gopal R, Freeman V (2005) Survival of patients with SLE admitted to an intensive care unit-a retrospective study. Clin Rheumatol 24(3):223–227
Zandman-Goddard G, Shoenfeld Y (2005) Infections and SLE. Autoimmunity 38(7):473–485
Chou NK, Ko WJ, Chi NH, Chen YS, Yu HY, Hsu RB, Fang CT, Chang SC, Lin FY, Chu SH, Wang SS (2006) Sparing immunosuppression in heart transplant recipients with severe sepsis. Transplant Proc 38(7):2145–2146
Taylor JL, Palmer SM (2006) Critical care perspective on immunotherapy in lung transplantation. J Intensive Care Med 21(6):327–344
Taddio A, Faleschini E, Valencic E, Granzotto M, Tommasini A, Lepore L, Andolina M, Barbi E, Ventura A (2007) Medium-term survival without haematopoietic stem cell transplantation in a case of IPEX: insights into nutritional and immunosuppressive therapy. Eur J Pediatr 166(11):1195–1197
Kobayashi I, Nakanishi M, Okano M, Sakiyama Y, Matsumoto S (1995) Combination therapy with tacrolimus and betamethasone for a patient with X-linked auto-immune enteropathy. Eur J Pediatr 154(7):594–595
Baud O, Goulet O, Canioni D, Le Deist F, Radford I, Rieu D, Dupuis-Girod S, Cerf-Bensussan N, Cavazzana-Calvo M, Brousse N, Fischer A, Casanova JL (2001) Treatment of the immune dysregulation, polyendocrinopathy, enteropathy, X-linked syndrome (IPEX) by allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. N Engl J Med 344(23):1758–1762
Mazzolari E, Forino C, Fontana M, D’Ippolito C, Lanfranchi A, Gambineri E, Ochs H, Badolato R, Notarangelo LD (2005) A new case of IPEX receiving bone marrow transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 35(10):1033–1034
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2012 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Imashuku, S. et al. (2012). Immune Dysregulation Diseases. In: Aghamohammadi, A., Rezaei, N. (eds) Clinical Cases in Primary Immunodeficiency Diseases. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-31785-9_5
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-31785-9_5
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-31784-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-31785-9
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)