Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Epidemiology of Stone Disease

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Clinical Management of Urolithiasis

Abstract

Urinary lithiasis is a common condition in many parts of the world, with a peak prevalence of 5–10% in Western societies (Stamatelou et al. 2003; Lieske et al. 2006). While the symptomatic stone event garners most attention from patients and physicians alike, emerging evidence suggests that stone disease should be considered a systemic disorder, characterized by a chronic metabolic condition that is periodically punctuated by a symptomatic stone event. A thorough understanding of the epidemiology of stone disease provides important insights into potential strategies for managing patients with urinary lithiasis. This chapter will provide an overview of the prevalence of stone disease, discuss contextual factors that may influence the development of kidney stones, and delineate mutable and fixed risk factors for the disease.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abate N, Chandalia M, Cabo-Chan AV Jr, Moe OW, Sakhaee K (2004) The metabolic syndrome and uric acid nephrolithiasis: novel features of renal manifestation of insulin resistance. Kidney Int 65(2):386–392

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Atan L, Andreoni C, Ortiz V et al (2005) High kidney stone risk in men working in steel industry at hot temperatures. Urology 65(5):858–861

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bataille P, Charransol G, Gregoire I et al (1983) Effect of calcium restriction on renal excretion of oxalate and the probability of stones in the various pathophysiological groups with calcium stones. J Urol 130(2):218–223

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bateson EM (1973) Renal tract calculi and climate. Med J Aust 2(3):111–113

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Borghi L, Meschi T, Amato F, Novarini A, Romanelli A, Cigala F (1993) Hot occupation and nephrolithiasis. J Urol 150(6):1757–1760

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Borghi L, Schianchi T, Meschi T et al (2002) Comparison of two diets for the prevention of recurrent stones in idiopathic hypercalciuria. N Engl J Med 346(2):77–84

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Breslau NA, Brinkley L, Hill KD, Pak CY (1988) Relationship of animal protein-rich diet to kidney stone formation and calcium metabolism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 66(1):140–146

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brikowski TH, Lotan Y, Pearle MS (2008) Climate-related increase in the prevalence of urolithiasis in the United States. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105(28):9841–9846

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clark JY (1990) Renal calculi in army aviators. Aviat Space Environ Med 61(8):744–747

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cramer JS, Forrest K (2006) Renal lithiasis: addressing the risks of austere desert deployments. Aviat Space Environ Med 77(6):649–653

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Curhan GC (2007) Epidemiology of stone disease. Urol Clin North Am 34(3):287–293

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Curhan GC, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ (1993) A prospective study of dietary calcium and other nutrients and the risk of symptomatic kidney stones. N Engl J Med 328(12):833–838

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Curhan GC, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ (1994) Regional variation in nephrolithiasis incidence and prevalence among United States men. J Urol 151(4):838–841

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Curhan GC, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Spiegelman D, Stampfer MJ (1997a) Comparison of dietary calcium with supplemental calcium and other nutrients as factors affecting the risk for kidney stones in women. Ann Intern Med 126(7):497–504

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Curhan GC, Willett WC, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ (1997b) Family history and risk of kidney stones. J Am Soc Nephrol 8(10):1568–1573

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Curhan GC, Willett WC, Speizer FE, Stampfer MJ (2001) Twenty-four-hour urine chemistries and the risk of kidney stones among women and men. Kidney Int 59(6):2290–2298

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Curhan GC, Willett WC, Knight EL, Stampfer MJ (2004) Dietary factors and the risk of incident kidney stones in younger women: Nurses’ Health Study II. Arch Intern Med 164(8):885–891

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ekeruo WO, Tan YH, Young MD et al (2004) Metabolic risk factors and the impact of medical therapy on the management of nephrolithiasis in obese patients. J Urol 172(1):159–163

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Evans K, Costabile RA (2005) Time to development of symptomatic urinary calculi in a high risk environment. J Urol 173(3):858–861

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fellstrom B, Danielson BG, Karlstrom B, Lithell H, Ljunghall S, Vessby B (1983a) The influence of a high dietary intake of purine-rich animal protein on urinary urate excretion and supersaturation in renal stone disease. Clin Sci (Lond) 64(4):399–405

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fellstrom B, Danielson BG, Karlstrom B, Lithell H, Ljunghall S, Vessby B (1983b) Dietary animal protein and urinary supersaturation in renal stone disease. Proc Eur Dial Transplant Assoc 20:411–416

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Finlayson B (1974) Symposium on renal lithiasis. Renal lithiasis in review. Urol Clin North Am 1(2):181–212

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heller HJ, Sakhaee K, Moe OW, Pak CY (2002) Etiological role of estrogen status in renal stone formation. J Urol 168(5):1923–1927

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hiatt RA, Dales LG, Friedman GD, Hunkeler EM (1982) Frequency of urolithiasis in a prepaid medical care program. Am J Epidemiol 115(2):255–265

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Iguchi M, Umekawa T, Ishikawa Y et al (1990) Dietary intake and habits of Japanese renal stone patients. J Urol 143(6):1093–1095

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ito H, Kotake T, Miura N (1993) Evaluation and management of dietary habits in Japanese renal stone formers. Scanning Microsc 7(1):409–414; discussion 414–405

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kerstetter J, Caballero B, O’Brien K, Wurtman R, Allen L (1991) Mineral homeostasis in obesity: effects of euglycemic hyperinsulinemia. Metabolism 40(7):707–713

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khan SR, Canales BK (2009) Genetic basis of renal cellular dysfunction and the formation of kidney stones. Urol Res 37(4):169–180

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lemann J Jr, Piering WF, Lennon EJ (1969) Possible role of carbohydrate-induced calciuria in calcium oxalate kidney-stone formation. N Engl J Med 280(5):232–237

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lieske JC, de la Vega LSP, Slezak JM et al (2006) Renal stone epidemiology in Rochester, Minnesota: an update. Kidney Int 69(4):760–764

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maalouf NM, Sakhaee K, Parks JH, Coe FL, Adams-Huet B, Pak CY (2004) Association of urinary pH with body weight in nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int 65(4):1422–1425

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mandel NS, Mandel GS (1989a) Urinary tract stone disease in the United States veteran population. II. Geographical analysis of variations in composition. J Urol 142(6):1516–1521

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mandel NS, Mandel GS (1989b) Urinary tract stone disease in the United States veteran population. I. Geographical frequency of occurrence. J Urol 142(6):1513–1515

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Massey LK, Whiting SJ (1995) Dietary salt, urinary calcium, and kidney stone risk. Nutr Rev 53(5):131–139

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Matlaga BR, Shore AD, Magnuson T, Clark JM, Johns R, Makary MA (2009) Effect of gastric bypass surgery on kidney stone disease. J Urol 181(6):2573–2577

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mattix Kramer HJ, Grodstein F, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC (2003) Menopause and postmenopausal hormone use and risk of incident kidney stones. J Am Soc Nephrol 14(5):1272–1277

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muldowney FP, Freaney R, Moloney MF (1982) Importance of dietary sodium in the hypercalciuria syndrome. Kidney Int 22(3):292–296

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Novak TE, Lakshmanan Y, Trock BJ, Gearhart JP, Matlaga BR (2009) Sex prevalence of pediatric kidney stone disease in the United States: an epidemiologic investigation. Urology 74(1):104–107

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pak CY, Barilla DE, Holt K, Brinkley L, Tolentino R, Zerwekh JE (1978) Effect of oral purine load and allopurinol on the crystallization of calcium salts in urine of patients with hyperuricosuric calcium urolithiasis. Am J Med 65(4):593–599

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Parry ES, Lister IS (1975) Sunlight and hypercalciuria. Lancet 1(7915):1063–1065

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pearle MS, Calhoun EA, Curhan GC (2005) Urologic diseases in America project: urolithiasis. J Urol 173(3):848–857

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pierce LW, Bloom B (1945) Observations on urolithiasis among American troops in a desert area. J Urol 54:466–470

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Powell CR, Stoller ML, Schwartz BF et al (2000) Impact of body weight on urinary electrolytes in urinary stone formers. Urology 55(6):825–830

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prince CL, Scardino PL (1960) A statistical analysis of ureteral calculi. J Urol 83:561–565

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prince CL, Scardino PL, Wolan CT (1956) The effect of temperature, humidity and dehydration on the formation of renal calculi. J Urol 75(2):209–215

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reddy ST, Wang CY, Sakhaee K, Brinkley L, Pak CY (2002) Effect of low-carbohydrate high-protein diets on acid–base balance, stone-forming propensity, and calcium metabolism. Am J Kidney Dis 40(2):265–274

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Relan V, Khullar M, Singh SK, Sharma SK (2004) Association of vitamin D receptor genotypes with calcium excretion in nephrolithiatic subjects in northern India. Urol Res 32(3):236–240

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rendina D, Mossetti G, Viceconti R et al (2004) Association between vitamin D receptor gene polymorphisms and fasting idiopathic hypercalciuria in recurrent stone-forming patients. Urology 64(4):833–838

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Resnick M, Pridgen DB, Goodman HO (1968) Genetic predisposition to formation of calcium oxalate renal calculi. N Engl J Med 278(24):1313–1318

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rumenapf G, Schmidtler J, Schwille PO (1990) Intestinal calcium absorption during hyperinsulinemic euglycemic glucose clamp in healthy humans. Calcif Tissue Int 46(2):73–79

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sakhaee K, Harvey JA, Padalino PK, Whitson P, Pak CY (1993) The potential role of salt abuse on the risk for kidney stone formation. J Urol 150(2 Pt 1):310–312

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sas DJ (2011) An update on the changing epidemiology and metabolic risk factors in pediatric kidney stone disease. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 6(8):2062–2068

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scales CD Jr, Curtis LH, Norris RD et al (2007) Changing gender prevalence of stone disease. J Urol 177(3):979–982

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scales CD Jr, Krupski TL, Curtis LH et al (2011) Practice variation in the surgical management of urinary lithiasis. J Urol 186(1):146–150

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scales CD Jr, Smith AC, Hanley JM et al.(2012) Prevalence of Kidney Stones in the United States. Eur Urol doi: 10.1016/j.eururo.2012.03.052

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharma AP, Filler G (2010) Epidemiology of pediatric urolithiasis. Indian J Urol 26(4):516–522

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Soucie JM, Thun MJ, Coates RJ, McClellan W, Austin H (1994) Demographic and geographic variability of kidney stones in the United States. Kidney Int 46(3):893–899

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Soucie JM, Coates RJ, McClellan W, Austin H, Thun M (1996) Relation between geographic variability in kidney stones prevalence and risk factors for stones. Am J Epidemiol 143(5):487–495

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Soylemezoglu O, Ozkaya O, Gonen S, Misirlioglu M, Kalman S, Buyan N (2004) Vitamin D receptor gene polymorphism in hypercalciuric children. Pediatr Nephrol 19(7):724–727

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stamatelou KK, Francis ME, Jones CA, Nyberg LM, Curhan GC (2003) Time trends in reported prevalence of kidney stones in the United States: 1976–1994. Kidney Int 63(5):1817–1823

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor EN, Curhan GC (2006) Body size and 24-hour urine composition. Am J Kidney Dis 48(6):905–915

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor EN, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC (2005a) Obesity, weight gain, and the risk of kidney stones. JAMA 293(4):455–462

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor EN, Stampfer MJ, Curhan GC (2005b) Diabetes mellitus and the risk of nephrolithiasis. Kidney Int 68(3):1230–1235

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vezzoli G, Tanini A, Ferrucci L et al (2002) Influence of calcium-sensing receptor gene on urinary calcium excretion in stone-forming patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 13(10):2517–2523

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vezzoli G, Terranegra A, Arcidiacono T et al (2007) R990G Polymorphism of calcium-sensing receptor does produce a gain-of-function and predispose to primary hypercalciuria. Kidney Int 71(11):1155–1162

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yasui T, Iguchi M, Suzuki S, Kohri K (2008) Prevalence and epidemiological characteristics of urolithiasis in Japan: national trends between 1965 and 2005. Urology 71(2):209–213

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshida O, Terai A, Ohkawa T, Okada Y (1999) National trend of the incidence of urolithiasis in Japan from 1965 to 1995. Kidney Int 56(5):1899–1904

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Urology and Department of Medicine, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation/VA Clinical Scholar, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA

    Charles D. Scales Jr. M.D.

  2. Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, Stanford, CA, USA

    Charles D. Scales Jr. M.D.

Authors
  1. Charles D. Scales Jr. M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Charles D. Scales Jr. M.D. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Klinik für Urologie, Klinikum Sindelfingen-Böblingen, Arthur-Gruber-Str. 70, Sindelfingen, 71065, Baden-Württemberg, Germany

    Thomas Knoll

  2. Center, Department of Urology, UT Southwestern Medical, 5323 Harry Hines, Blvd, Dallas, 75390, Texas, USA

    Margaret S. Pearle

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Scales, C.D. (2013). Epidemiology of Stone Disease. In: Knoll, T., Pearle, M. (eds) Clinical Management of Urolithiasis. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28732-9_1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28732-9_1

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-642-28731-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-642-28732-9

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation