Skip to main content

On Environmental Change and Armed Conflict

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: Hexagon Series on Human and Environmental Security and Peace ((HSHES,volume 8))

Abstract

Environmental security (ES) is a complex concept with many connotations. It is a central part of the even broader concept of human security (UNDP 1994) and is inherently linked to sustainable development (Brundtland 1987). All these terms emerged at a time when the threat of large-scale nuclear war was no longer perceived as credible, and policymakers and military actors alike saw the need for a wider application of the security term.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Albala-Bertrand, Jose-Miguel, 1993: Political Economy of Large Natural Disasters (Oxford: Oxford University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Baechler, Günther, 1999: Violence through Environmental Discrimination (Dordrecht: Kluwer).

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnett, Jon; Adger, W. Neil, 2007: “Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict”, in: Political Geography, 26,6 (August): 639–655.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binningsbø, Helga Malmin; de Soysa; Indra; Gleditsch, Nils Petter, 2007: “Green Giant, or Straw Man? Environmental Pressure and Civil Conflict”, in: Population and Environment, 28,6 (July): 337–353.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boko, M.; Niang, I.; Nyong, A.; Vogel, C.; Githeko, A.; Medany, M.; Osman-Elasha, B.; Tabo, R.; Yanda, P., 2007: “Africa”, in: Parry, M.L.; Canziani, O.F.; Palutikof, J.P. van der Linden, P.J.; Hanson, C.E. (Eds.): Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press): 433–467.

    Google Scholar 

  • Breshears, David D.; Cobb, Neil S.; Rich, Paul M.; Price, Kevin P.; Allen, Craig D.; Balice, Randy G.; Romme, William H.; Kastens, Jude H.; Floyd, M. Lisa; Belnap, Jayne; Anderson, Jesse J.; Myers, Orrin B.; Meyer, Clifton W., 2005: “Regional Vegetation Die-Off in Response to Global-Change-Type Drought”, in: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 102,42 (October): 15144–15148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brundtland, Gro Harlem (Chairman), 1987: Our Common Future. Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development (New York, NY: United Nations); format: <http://www.un-documents.net/wced-ocf.htm> (May 11 2010).

  • Buhaug, Halvard, 2010: “Climate not to blame for African Civil Wars”, in: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 107,38 (September): 16477–16482.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buhaug, Halvard; Lujala, Päivi, 2005: “Accounting for Scale: Measuring Geography in Quantitative Studies of Civil War”, in: Political Geography, 24,4 (May): 399–418.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buhaug, Halvard; Rød, Jan Ketil, 2006: “Local Determinants of African Civil Wars, 1970–2001”, in: Political Geography, 25,3 (March): 315–335.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buhaug, Halvard; Gleditsch, Nils Petter; Theisen, Ole Magnus, 2010: “Implications of Climate Change for Armed Conflict”, in: Mearns, Robin; Norton, Andrew (Eds.): The Social Dimensions of Climate Change: Equity and Vulnerability in a Warming World (Washington: The World Bank): 75–101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burke, Marshall B.; Miguel, Edward; Satyanath, Shanker; Dykema, John A.; Lobell, David B., 2009: “Warming Increases the Risk of Civil War in Africa”, in: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 106,49 (December): 20670–20674.

    Google Scholar 

  • Busby, Joshua; Smith, Todd G.; White, Kaiba; Strange, Shawn M., 2010: “The Sources of Climate Insecurity: Mapping Vulnerability in Africa”, April (unpublished).

    Google Scholar 

  • Cederman, L.E.; Girardin, Luc, 2007: “Beyond Fractionalization: Mapping Ethnicity onto Nationalist Insurgencies”, in: American Political Science Review, 101,1 (February): 173–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christensen, J.H.; Hewitson, B.; Busuioc, A.; Chen, A; Gao, X; Held, I; Jones, R; Kolli, R.K.; Kwon, W.-T.; Laprise, R.; Magaña Rueda, V; Mearns, L.; Menéndez, C.G.; Räisänen, J.; Rinke, A.; Sarr, A.; Whetton, P., 2007: “Regional Climate Projections”, in: Solomon, S.; Qin, D.; Manning, M.; Chen, Z.; Marquis, M.; Averyt, K.B.; Tignor, M.; Miller, H.L. (Eds.): Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press): 847–940.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christian Aid, 2007: Human Tide: the Real Migration Crisis(London, UK: Christian Aid); at: <http://www.christianaid.org.uk/Images/human_tide3__tcm15-23335.pdf> (11 May 2010).

  • Ciccone, Antonio, 2010: “Transitory Economic Shocks and Civil Conflict”, February (unpublished); at: <http://www.antoniociccone.eu/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/transitory-shocks-february-2010f.pdf> (11 May 2010).

  • CNA Corporation, 2007: National Security and the Threat of Climate Change (Alexandria, VA: CNA Corporation).

    Google Scholar 

  • Collier, Paul, 2000: “Rebellion as a Quasi-Criminal Activity”, in: Journal of Conflict Resolution, 44,6 (December): 839–853.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collier, Paul; Reynal-Querol, Marta; Hegre, Håvard; Elliot, Lani; Sambanis, Nicholas, 2003: Breaking the Conflict Trap: Civil War and Development Policy (Washington, DC: The World Bank); at: <http://web.worldbank.org> (11 May 2010).

  • Collier, Paul; Hoeffler, Anke, 2004: “Greed and Grievance in Civil War”, in: Oxford Economic Papers, 56,4 (October): 563–596.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED), 2009: Annual Disaster Statistical Review: Numbers and Trends 2008 (Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, Brussels, Belgium).

    Google Scholar 

  • Esty, Daniel C.; Goldstone, Jack A.; Gurr, Ted Robert; Harff, Barbara; Levy, Marc; Dabelko, Geoffrey D.; Surko, Pamela; Unger, Alan N., 1998: State Failure Task Force Report: Phase II Findings (McLean, VA: Science Applications International).

    Google Scholar 

  • Fearon, James D.; Laitin, David D., 2003: “Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War”, in: American Political Science Review, 97,1 (February): 75–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gellner, Ernest, 1983: Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Gleditsch, Kristian Skrede, 2002: “Expanded Trade and GDP Data”, in: Journal of Conflict Resolution, 46,5 (October): 712–724.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gleditsch, Kristian Skrede, 2007: “Transnational Dimensions of Civil War”, in: Journal of Peace Research, 44,3 (May): 293–309.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gleditsch, Nils Petter, 2008: “The Liberal Moment Fifteen Years On”, in: International Studies Quarterly, 52,4 (December): 691–712.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gleditsch, Nils Petter; Wallensteen, Peter; Eriksson, Mikael; Sollenberg, Margareta; Strand, Håvard, 2002: “Armed Conflict 1946–2001: A New Dataset”, in: Journal of Peace Research, 39,5 (September): 615–637.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grossman, Herschel I., 1991: “A General Equilibrium Model of Insurrections”, in: American Economic Review, 81,4 (September): 912–921.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gurr, Ted Robert, 2000: People versus States. Minorities at Risk in the New Century (Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Harbom Lotta; Wallensteen, Peter, 2009: “Armed Conflicts, 1946-2008”, in: Journal of Peace Research, 46,4 (July): 577–587.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hauge, Wenche; Ellingsen, Tanja, 1998: “Beyond Environmental Scarcity: Causal Pathways to Conflict”, in: Journal of Peace Research, 35,3 (May): 299–317.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hegre, Håvard; Sambanis, Nicholas, 2006: “Sensitivity Analysis of Empirical Results on Civil War Onset”, in: Journal of Conflict Resolution, 50,4 (August): 508–535.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hendrix, Cullen S.; Glaser, Sarah M., 2007: “Trends and Triggers: Climate, Climate Change and Civil Conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa”, in: Political Geography, 26,6 (August): 695–715.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homer-Dixon, Thomas, 1991: “On the Threshold. Environmental Changes as Causes of Acute Conflict”, in: International Security, 16,2 (Fall): 76–116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Homer-Dixon, Thomas, 1999: Environment, Scarcity and Violence (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, Peter S.; Gleditsch, Kristian S., 2009: “Rain, Growth, and Civil War: The Importance of Location”, in: Defense and Peace Economics, 20,5 (October): 359–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kahl, Colin, 2006: States, Scarcity, and Civil Strife in the Developing World (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Laczko, Frank; Aghazaram, Christine (Eds.), 2009: Migration, Environment, and Climate Change: Assessing the Evidence (Geneva: International Organization for Migration).

    Google Scholar 

  • Levy, Marc A., 1995: “Is the Environment a National Security Issue?”, in: International Security, 20,2 (Autumn): 35-62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, M. G.; Jaggers, K., 2002: Polity IV Dataset (University of Maryland: Center for International Development and Conflict Management).

    Google Scholar 

  • McKee, T. B.; Doesken, N. J.; Kleist, J., 1993: “The relationship of drought frequency and duration to time scale”, Paper for the 8th Conference on Applied Climatology, Anaheim, CA, 17-22 January; at: <http://ccc.atmos.colostate.edu/relationshipofdroughtfrequency.pdf> (11May 2010).

  • Meier, Patrick; Bond, Doug; Bond, Joe, 2007: “Environmental Influences on Pastoral Conflict in the Horn of Africa”, in: Political Geography, 26,6 (August): 716–735.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miguel, Edward; Satyanath, Shanker; Sergenti, Ernest, 2004: “Economic Shocks and Civil Conflict: An Instrumental Variable Approach”, in: Journal of Political Economy, 112,4 (August): 725–753.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nordås, Ragnhild; Gleditsch, Nils Petter, 2007: “Climate Change and Conflict”, in: Political Geography, 26,6 (August): 627–638.

    Google Scholar 

  • Østby, Gudrun; Tadjoeddin, Zulfan; Urdal, Henrik; Murshed, S. Mansoob; Strand, Håvard, 2011: “Population Pressure, Horizontal Inequalities and Political Violence: A Disaggregated Study of Indonesian Provinces, 1990–2003”, in: Journal of Development Studies 47,3: 377–398.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ragin, Charles, 1987: The Comparative Method: Moving Beyond Qualitative and Quantitative Strategies (Berkley, CA: University of California Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Ragin, Charles; Rihoux, Benoit, 2008: Configurational Comparative Methods: Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) and Related Techniques (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage).

    Google Scholar 

  • Raleigh, Clionadh, 2010: “Political Marginalization, Climate Change, and Conflict in African Sahel States”, in: International Studies Review, 12,1 (March): 69–86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raleigh, Clionadh; Urdal, Henrik, 2007: “Climate Change, Environmental Degradation and Armed Conflict”, in: Political Geography, 26,6 (August): 674–694.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raleigh, Clionadh; Jordan, Lisa, 2010: “Climate Change and Migration: Emerging Patterns in the Developing World”, in: Mearns, Robin; Norton, Andrew (Eds.): Social Dimensions of Climate Change: Equity and Vulnerability in a Warming World (Washington, DC: The World Bank): 103–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raleigh, Clionadh; Kniveton, Dominic, 2010: “Chronic Communal Conflict and Environmental Pressures”, Paper presented at the Climate Change and Security Conference Trondheim, Norway, 21-24 June 2010; at: <http://climsec.prio.no/papers/Raleigh_kniveton_kenya.pdf> (28 October 2010).

  • Reardon, Thomas; Taylor, J. Edward, 1996: “Agroclimatic Shock, Income Inequality, and Poverty: Evidence from Burkina Faso”, in: World Development, 24,5 (May): 901–914.

    Google Scholar 

  • Renner, Michael, 2006: “Introduction to the Concepts of Environmental Security and Environmental Conflict”, in: Kingham, Ronald A. (Ed.): Inventory of Environment and Security Policies and Practices: An Overview of Strategies and Initiatives of Selected Governments, International Organizations and Inter-Governmental Organizations (The Hague, the Netherlands: Institute for Environmental Security); at: <http://www.envirosecurity.org/ges/inventory/IESPP_I-C_Introduction.pdf> (11 May 2010).

  • Reuveny, Rafael, 2007: “Climate Change-Induced Migration and Violent Conflict”, in: Political Geography, 26 (August): 656–673.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ribot, Jesse, 2010: “Vulnerability Does Not Fall from the Sky: Toward Multiscale, Pro-Poor Climate Policy”, in: Mearns, Robin; Norton, Andrew (Eds.): Social Dimensions of Climate Change: Equity and Vulnerability in a Warming World (Washington, DC: The World Bank) 47–74.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rudolf, Bruno; Schneider, Udo, 2005: “Calculation of Gridded Precipitation Data for the Global Land-Surface Using In-Situ Gauge Observations”, Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop of the International Precipitation Working Group IPWG, Monterey, CA October 2004: 231–247; at: <http://www.isac.cnr.it/~ipwg/meetings/monterey/pdf/Rudolf.pdf> (11 May 2010).

  • Salehyan, Idean; Gleditsch, Kristian S., 2006: “Refugees and the spread of civil war”, in: International Organization, 60,2 (Spring): 335–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salehyan, Idean, 2008: “From Climate Change to Conflict? No Consensus Yet”, in: Journal of Peace Research, 45,3 (May), 315–326.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, Daniel M.; Deligiannis, Tom; Homer-Dixon, Thomas, 2001: “The Environment and Violent Conflict”, in: Diehl, Paul F.; Gleditsch, Nils Petter (Eds.): Environmental Conflict (Boulder, CO: Westview): 273–295.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sen, Amartya, 1981: Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation (Oxford, U.K.: Basil Blackwell).

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, Dan; Vivekananda, Janani, 2007: A Climate of Conflict: The Links between Climate Change, Peace and War (London, UK: International Alert); at: <http://www.international-alert.org/publications/pub.php?p=322> (11 May 2010).

  • Stern, Nicholas, 2007: The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Suliman, Mohamed, 1999: “The Rationality and Irrationality of Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa”, in Suliman, Mohamed (Ed.): Ecology, Politics, and Violent Conflict (London: Zed Books): 25–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Theisen, Ole Magnus, 2008: “Blood and Soil? Resource Scarcity and Internal Armed Conflict Revisited”, in: Journal of Peace Research, 45,6 (November): 801–818.

    Google Scholar 

  • Theisen, Ole Magnus; Holtermann, Helge; Buhaug, Halvard, 2010: “Drought, Political Exclusion, and Civil War”, October (under journal review).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tilly, Charles, 1978: From Mobilization to Revolution (New York: McGraw-Hill).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tilly, Charles, 2003: The Politics of Collective Violence (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press).

    Google Scholar 

  • United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 1994: Human Development Report 1994, (New York, NY: Oxford University Press); at: <http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr1994/> (11 May 2010).

  • United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), 22008: Vital Water Graphics. An Overview of the State of the World’s Fresh and Marine Waters (Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Environment Programme); at: <http://www.unep.org/dewa/vitalwater/> (11 May 2010).

  • Urdal, Henrik, 2005: “People vs. Malthus: Population pressure, environmental degradation, and armed conflict revisited”, in: Journal of Peace Research, 42,4 (July): 417–434.

    Google Scholar 

  • Urdal, Henrik, 2008: “Population, Resources, and Political Violence: A Sub-National Study of India, 1956–2002”, in: Journal of Conflict Resolution, 52,4 (August): 590–617.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wimmer, Andreas; Cederman, Lars-Erik; Min, Brian, 2009: “Ethnic Politics and Armed Conflict: A Configurational Analysis of a New Global Data Set”, in: American Sociological Review, 74,2 (April): 316–337.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolf, Aaron T., 1998: “Conflict and Cooperation along International Waterways”, in: Water Policy, 1,1: 251–165.

    Google Scholar 

  • Witsenburg, Karen; Adano, Wario R., 2009: “Of Rain and Raids: Violent Livestock Raiding in Northern Kenya”, in: Civil Wars, 11,4 (December): 514–538.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Halvard Buhaug .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Buhaug, H., Theisen, O.M. (2012). On Environmental Change and Armed Conflict. In: Scheffran, J., Brzoska, M., Brauch, H., Link, P., Schilling, J. (eds) Climate Change, Human Security and Violent Conflict. Hexagon Series on Human and Environmental Security and Peace, vol 8. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28626-1_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics