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Regulation of Sexual Conduct in UN Peacekeeping Operations pp 39–77Cite as

The Secretary-General’s Bulletin: Evolution and Reception

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Abstract

This chapter aims to explore the policy and legal responses that followed the emergence of the problem of sexual exploitation in peacekeeping operations (PKOs). The chapter will describe the official responses to the problem that led eventually to the promulgation of the Secretary-General’s Bulletin (SGB) and its provisions in relation to prostitution and sexual relationships. It evaluates the reception of the SGB by researchers who undertook empirical studies into sexual exploitation in PKOs between 2003 and 2008. It begins by tracing the development of institutional responses to alleged sexual exploitation, and describes and analyses these developments in three stages. Drawing on feminist scholarship and the work of the few critics of the policy, the chapter concludes that the zero tolerance policy is an inappropriate response to the problem of sexual exploitation in PKOs, because it treats all sex between peacekeepers and beneficiaries as exploitative, which is inconsistent with international human rights law.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Secretary-General’s Bulletin (SGB), Special measures for protection from sexual exploitation and abuse, ST/SGB/200313 (9 October 2002), para 3(2).

  2. 2.

    United Nations Operation in Mozambique (ONUMOZ) 1992–1994.

  3. 3.

    Gayle Kirshenbaum, ‘Who’s Watching the Peacekeepers?’ Ms. Magazine (May/June 1994) 12. In Ann Orford ‘Politics of Collective Security’ (1995–1996) 17 Michigan Journal of International Law 373.

  4. 4.

    United Nations, ‘Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Children: Impact of Armed Conflict on Children.’ Note by the Secretary-General, A/51/306 (26 August 1996), para 98.

  5. 5.

    Kirshenbaum, above n 3.

  6. 6.

    Ibid 378; UNAMIC 1991–1992.

  7. 7.

    Judy Ledgerwood, ‘The Lessons from Cambodia,’ Asian Recorder, April 16–22, 1993, 23060 in Sandra Whitworth, Men, Militarism and UN Peacekeeping: A Gendered Analysis (Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2004) 69.

  8. 8.

    Ibid.

  9. 9.

    ‘Letters: An Open Letter to Yasushi Akashi (Head of the UN Operation in Cambodia in 1994)’, Phnom Penh Post, 4 October 1994. In Cynthia Enloe, Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women's Lives (University of California Press, 2000) 99.

  10. 10.

    Sarah Martin, ‘Must Boys be Boys? Ending Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in UN Peacekeeping Missions’ (Refugee International, 2005) 4.

  11. 11.

    Mara Radovanovic and Angelika Kartusch, ‘Report on the Combat against Trafficking in Women for the Purpose of Forced Prostitution in Bosnia and Herzegovina’ (Vienna, Ludwig Bolzmann Institute of Human Rights 2001).

  12. 12.

    On 12 May 2000, UNMIBH and OHCHR released a joint report on ‘Trafficking in Human Beings in Bosnia and Herzegovina: A Summary Report of the Joint Trafficking Project of the UN Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights’. The report explains the work of the international community to respond to the growing problem of trafficking in Bosnia and Herzegovina. See: <http://www.ohr.int/ohr-dept/hr-rol/thedept/hr-coord-cent/info-reps/hr-reports/default.asp?content_id=5099>.

  13. 13.

    UNMIBH Legal Office, Guidance No. 21, ‘Trafficking in Persons’ May 1999.

  14. 14.

    UNMIBH Special Press Conference, ‘UNMIBH Trafficking project and Introduction to the New Special Trafficking Operations Program (STOP)’, July 26 2001. See, Aida Cerkez-Robinson, ‘New Special Police Units to Help Fighting Trafficking of Women,’ Associated Press, July 26, 2001.

  15. 15.

    Bosnia and Herzegovina-UNMIBH-Background, 12 August 2009 <http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/missions/past/unmibh/background.html>.

  16. 16.

    Human Rights Watch, ‘Hopes Betrayed: Trafficking of Women and Girls to Post-conflict Bosnia and Herzegovina for Forced Prostitution’ (2002).

  17. 17.

    Ibid 55.

  18. 18.

    UN Department for Peacekeeping Operations, Ten Rules: Code of Personal Conduct for Blue Helmets (1997).

  19. 19.

    Ibid.

  20. 20.

    Ibid.

  21. 21.

    Ibid.

  22. 22.

    However, Prince Zeid suggested that these guidelines be included in each memorandum of understanding signed by the UN with each troop-contributing country and thus become legally binding. See, A Comprehensive Strategy to Eliminate Future Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations, UN GA, 59 sess, A/59/710 (24 March 2005) para 20.

  23. 23.

    This training manual was developed in 1998, by DPKO and UNAIDS, and based on a booklet titled ‘Protect Yourself and Those You Care About Against HIV/AIDS’.

  24. 24.

    Maddalena Pezzotti, Chief, Office of Gender Affairs, ‘UNMIK Office of Gender Affairs Places Gender Concerns at the Top of Peacekeeping Political Agenda in Kosovo’ (United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, UNMIK, October 2004) <http://www.peacewomen.org/assets/file/Resources/UN/dpko_unmikgenderaffairs_2004.pdf>.

  25. 25.

    As of September 2005, 10 out of 18 peacekeeping missions have dedicated full-time gender advisors.

  26. 26.

    Amy Smythe et al, ‘Activities Report from the Office of Gender Affairs (OGA) of the United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo (MONUC)’, 10 January 2003.

  27. 27.

    DPKO Training and Evaluation Service Military Division, ‘Gender and Peacekeeping Operations In-Mission Training’ (2001).

  28. 28.

    Ibid Introduction.

  29. 29.

    Ibid 20.

  30. 30.

    Ibid.

  31. 31.

    DPKO, The Standard Generic Training Module on ‘Gender and Peacekeeping’ (2002) 12.

  32. 32.

    Ibid 13.

  33. 33.

    Ibid.

  34. 34.

    Ibid.

  35. 35.

    UNHCR and Save the Children UK, ‘Sexual Violence and Exploitation: The Experience of Refugee Children in Liberia, Guinea and Sierra Leone, Report of Assessment Mission Carried Out from 22 October to 30 November 2001’ (2002).

  36. 36.

    Ibid.

  37. 37.

    Ibid 43.

  38. 38.

    The Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) was established by the UN in 1994 to investigate internal affairs.

  39. 39.

    Secretary-General, Report of the Secretary-General on the Activities of the Office of Internal Oversight Services, Delivered to the General Assembly, UN Doc A/57/451 (4 October 2002).

  40. 40.

    Ibid 29.

  41. 41.

    The Inter-Agency Standing Committee is comprised of both members (FAO, OCHA, UNDP, UNFPA, UNICEF, UNHCR, WFP, WHO) and standing invitees (ICRC, ICVA, IFRC, InterAction, IOM, SCHR, RSG/IDPs, UNHCHR, and the World Bank).

  42. 42.

    United Nations Office for Coordination for Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), ‘Protection from Sexual Exploitation and Abuse’ <http://ochaonline.un.org/HumanitarianIssues/ProtectionfromSexualExploitationandAbuse/tabid/1204/language/en-US/Default.aspx>.

  43. 43.

    The Inter-Agency Standing Committee, ‘Report of the Task Force on Protection from Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in Humanitarian Crises’ (13 June 2002).

  44. 44.

    Sexual exploitation is any abuse of a position of vulnerability, differential power, or trust for sexual purposes; this includes profiting monetarily, socially or politically from the sexual exploitation of another. Sexual abuse is actual or threatened physical intrusion of a sexual nature, including inappropriate touching, by force or under unequal or coercive conditions. The Secretary General’s Bulletin, definitions, above n 1.

  45. 45.

    ) Sexual exploitation and abuse by humanitarian workers constitute acts of gross misconduct and are therefore grounds for termination of employment. 2) Sexual activity with children (persons under the age of 18) is prohibited regardless of the age of majority or age of consent locally. Mistaken belief in the age of a child is not a defence. 3) Exchange of money, employment, goods, or services for sex, including sexual favours or other forms of humiliating, degrading or exploitative behaviour is prohibited. This includes exchange of assistance that is due to beneficiaries. 4) Sexual relationships between humanitarian workers and beneficiaries are strongly discouraged since they are based on inherently unequal power dynamics. Such relationships undermine the credibility and integrity of humanitarian aid work. 5) Where a humanitarian worker develops concerns or suspicions regarding sexual abuse or exploitation by a fellow worker, whether in the same agency or not, s/he must report such concerns via established agency reporting mechanisms. 6) Humanitarian workers’ agencies are obliged to create and maintain an environment which prevents sexual exploitation and abuse and promotes the implementation of their code of conduct. Managers at all levels have particular responsibilities to support and develop systems which maintain this environment.

  46. 46.

    UN General Assembly, Investigation into sexual exploitation of refugees by aid workers in West Africa, 57th sess, A/Res/57/306 (22 May 2003).

  47. 47.

    Ibid.

  48. 48.

    Secretary-General’s Bulletin, above n 1, Preamble.

  49. 49.

    Ibid sec 3.

  50. 50.

    Staff Regulations, ST/SGB/2003/5 (7 February 2003).Regulation 1.2: Core values (a).

  51. 51.

    Ibid sec 2.2.

  52. 52.

    Ibid.

  53. 53.

    Ibid sec 3.2.

  54. 54.

    Ibid sec 3.2 (a).

  55. 55.

    Ibid sec 3.2 (e).

  56. 56.

    The Executive Committees on Humanitarian Affairs and Peace and Security (ECHA/ECPS) UN and NGO Task Force on Protection from Sexual Exploitation and Abuse, ‘Terms of Reference for In-country Focal Points on Protection from Sexual Exploitation and Abuse by UN/NGO/IGO Personnel’ (November 2008).

  57. 57.

    Secretary-General’s Bulletin, above n 1, sec 2.1.

  58. 58.

    Ibid sec 1, definitions. Sexual abuse is defined ‘as the actual or threatened physical intrusion of a sexual nature, whether by force or under unequal or coercive conditions.’

  59. 59.

    UNHCR and Save the Children UK, above n. 35, 22.

  60. 60.

    Secretary-General’s Bulletin, above n 1, sec 4.4.

  61. 61.

    Ibid sec 4.5.

  62. 62.

    Secretary-General’s Bulletin, above n 1, sec 3.2 (d).

  63. 63.

    Ibid sec 4.4.

  64. 64.

    MONUC Conduct Unit, ‘Issues to know: Sexual Exploitation’, 27 November 2005 <http://monusco.unmissions.org/news.aspx>.

  65. 65.

    Ibid.

  66. 66.

    UNICEF, ‘Inter-Agency Training for Focal Points on Protection from Sexual Exploitation and Abuse by UN personnel and partners: Facilitator’s Manual’ 2007 <http://www.unitarpoci.org/media/course_extras/vaw_focal_point_manual.pdf> 32.

  67. 67.

    Constanze Schellhaas and Annette Seegers, ‘Peacebuilding: imperialism’s new disguise?’ (2009) 18 (2) African Security Review 11.

  68. 68.

    Ibid16.

  69. 69.

    Ibid157.

  70. 70.

    Kimberly Zisk Marten, Enforcing the Peace: Learning from the Imperial Past (Columbia University Press, 2004) 7.

  71. 71.

    Ibid 38.

  72. 72.

    Ibid 52.

  73. 73.

    DPKO, UN Peacekeeping Handbook for Junior Ranks (1997) 35.

  74. 74.

    Catharine MacKinnon, Feminism Unmodified: Discourses on Life and Law (Harvard University Press, 1987) 123.

  75. 75.

    Andrea Dworkin, Pornography: Men Possessing Women (Perigee Books, 1981).

  76. 76.

    Elisabeth Defeis, ‘U.N. Peacekeeping and Sexual Abuse and Exploitation: An End to Impunity’ (2008) 7 (2) Washington University Global Studies Law Review 185, 191.

  77. 77.

    Dianne Otto, ‘The Sexual Tensions of UN Peace Support Operations: A Plea for ‘Sexual Positivity’ (2007) XVIII Finnish Yearbook of International Law 40, 41.

  78. 78.

    Anne Phillips, ‘Feminism and Liberalism Revisited: Has Martha Nussbaum Got It Right?’ (2001) 8(2) Constellations 262.

  79. 79.

    Martha C. Nussbaum, Sex and Social Justice (Oxford University Press, 2000).

  80. 80.

    Nancy Hartsock, Money, Sex and Power: Towards a Feminist Historical Materialism (Longman, 1983) 12, 224.

  81. 81.

    Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton University Press, 1990) 31.

  82. 82.

    Sarah Hoagland, Lesbian Ethics: Toward a New Value (Institute of Lesbian Studies, 1988), Starhawk, Truth or Dare: Encounters with Power, Authority, and Mystery (Harper, 1987), Wartenberg, Thomas, The Forms of Power: From Domination to Transformation (Temple University Press, 1990).

  83. 83.

    Jennine Carmichael, First, Do No Harm: Addressing the Problem of Sexual Exploitation and Abuse by International Aid Workers and Peacekeepers (MA Thesis, The University of Melbourne, 2006) 30.

  84. 84.

    Ratna Kapur, ‘The Tragedy of Victimization Rhetoric: Resurrecting the “Native” Subject in International/Post-Colonial Feminist Legal Politics’ (2002) 15 Harvard Human Rights Journal 6.

  85. 85.

    Ibid 5.

  86. 86.

    Ibid 11.

  87. 87.

    Ibid 11,12.

  88. 88.

    Pamela Scully. ‘Vulnerable women: A critical reflection on human rights discourse and sexual violence’ (2009) 23 Emory International Law Review 113.

  89. 89.

    Dubravka Zarkov, ‘Towards a new theorizing of women, gender and war’ in Evans M, Davis K and Lorber, J (eds) Handbook of Gender and Women’s Studies (SAGE, 2006) 230.

  90. 90.

    Ibid.

  91. 91.

    Milica Bakic-Hayden and Robert M. Hayden, ‘Orientalist Variations on the Theme “Balkans”: Symbolic geography in recent Yugoslav Cultural Politics’ (1992) 51(1) Slavic Review 9.

  92. 92.

    Zarkov, above n 89, 231.

  93. 93.

    Ibid 233.

  94. 94.

    Dianne Otto, ‘Making Sense of Zero Tolerance Policies in Peacekeeping Sexual Economies’ in Vanessa Munro and Carl F. Stychin (eds.), Sexuality and the Law: Feminist Engagements (Routledge-Cavendish, 2007) 259, 278.

  95. 95.

    Sarah Hoagland, above n 82.

  96. 96.

    Preamble of the UN Charter, ‘We the peoples of the United Nations determine, to…reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women’. See also, ‘The United Nations shall promote: universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion’, art. 55 (c).

  97. 97.

    The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to ensure the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all civil and political rights set forth in the present Covenant (art. 3).

  98. 98.

    The States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to ensure the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all economic, social and cultural rights set forth in the present Covenant (art. 3).

  99. 99.

    States Parties shall take in all fields, in particular in the political, social, economic and cultural fields, all appropriate measures, including legislation, to ensure the full development and advancement of women, for the purpose of guaranteeing them the exercise and enjoyment of human rights and freedoms on a basis of equality with men (art. 3).

  100. 100.

    The United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women, Platform for Action (Beijing, China, September 1995), para 96.

  101. 101.

    Henri Fourcault, ‘United Nations Organizational Integrity Initiative’, 25 March 2004 <http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UN/UNPAN021339.pdf>.

  102. 102.

    Otto, above n 94, 260.

  103. 103.

    Toonen v. Australia, CCPR/C/50/D/488/1992, UN Human Rights Committee (HRC), 4 April 1994.

  104. 104.

    Ibid, para 8.2.

  105. 105.

    Norris v Ireland (Application no. 10581/83) European Court of Human Rights, Judgment 26 October 1988.

  106. 106.

    Modinos v Cyprus (Application no. 15070/89) European Court of Human Rights, Judgment 22 April 1993.

  107. 107.

    Dudgeon v The United Kingdom, (Application no. 7525/76) European Court of Human Rights Judgment 22 October 1981.

  108. 108.

    Bowers v. Hardwick, 478 U.S. 186, 196 (1986), overruled by Lawrence v. Texas, 539 U.S. 558 (2003).

  109. 109.

    General Comment No 16: The right to respect of privacy, family, home and correspondence, and protection of honour and reputation (Art 17) 08/04/1988 para 1.

  110. 110.

    Ibid, para 7.

  111. 111.

    Ibid, para 8.

  112. 112.

    Secretary-General’s Bulletin, above n 1, sec 3.2 (c).

  113. 113.

    DPKO, ‘Standard Operating Procedure: Public Information Activities on Sexual Exploitation and Abuse’ (3 April 2006).

  114. 114.

    Carmichael, above n 83, 29.

  115. 115.

    Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), opened for signature 18 December 1979, UNTS 13 (entered into force 3 September 1981) art.6.

  116. 116.

    Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, ‘Violence Against Women’, General Recommendation 19 (1992), para 15.

  117. 117.

    Ibid art 6, para 15.

  118. 118.

    Ibid.

  119. 119.

    Ibid.

  120. 120.

    Declaration on Elimination of Violence against Women (1994), art 2 (b).

  121. 121.

    The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, GA Res 25, annex II, 55th sess, UN Doc A/45/49 (entered into force 9 September 2003) art 3 (a).

  122. 122.

    Joyce Outshoorn, 'The Political Debates on Prostitution and Trafficking of Women' (2005) 12(1) Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State and Society 150.

  123. 123.

    Anne Gallagher, ‘Human Rights and the New UN Protocols on Trafficking and Migrant Smuggling: A Preliminary Analysis’ (2001) 23(4) Human Rights Quarterly 975, 984.

  124. 124.

    Justice Sujata V Manohar et al, ‘Preliminary Report on Women and Migration’, International Law Association: New Delhi Conference (2002), on file with author.

  125. 125.

    Jo Bindman, ‘Redefining Prostitution as Sex Work on the International Agenda’ (Antislavery International, unpublished report, 1997) <http://www.walnet.org/csis/papers/redefining.html>.

  126. 126.

    Catharine A MacKinnon, 'Prostitution and Civil Rights’ (1993) 1 Michigan Journal of Gender & Law 15.

  127. 127.

    Sheila Jeffreys, ‘The Legalization of Prostitution: A Failed Social Experiment (2003) United Nations’. Speech delivered at the Swedish mission side event at the Commission on the Status of Women, United Nations, New York, 5 March, 2003.

  128. 128.

    Laurie Shrage, ‘Should Feminists Oppose Prostitution?’ (1989) 99 (2) Ethics 347.

  129. 129.

    Ibid.

  130. 130.

    Laurie Shrage, 'Comment on Overall’s “What’s Wrong with Prostitution? Evaluating Sex Work” (1994) 19(2) Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 564.

  131. 131.

    Kathleen Barry, The Prostitution of Sexuality (New York University Press, 1995) 33.

  132. 132.

    Fareda Banda and Christine Chinkin, ‘Gender, Minorities and Indigenous Peoples’ (Minority Rights Group International, 2004) 11.

  133. 133.

    Ademola Kazeem Fayemi, ‘The Challenges of Prositution and Female Trafficking in Africa: An African Ethico-Feminist Perspective’ (2009) 3(1) The Journal of Pan African Studies 200.

  134. 134.

    Ibid 210.

  135. 135.

    Ibid 201.

  136. 136.

    Ibid.

  137. 137.

    Ured za ljudska prava, ‘Okrugli stol pod nazivom: Argumenti pro & contra legalizacije prostitucije’ 30 May 2005 <http://www.ljudskaprava-vladarh.hr/Default.aspx?art=93&sec=59>.

  138. 138.

    Ibid.

  139. 139.

    Vesna Kesic, ‘Odgovor Ogurlicu: Diskriminacija ocigledna vec iz naslova i opreme teksta koji zene (‘lijepe djevojke’) i jeftino pivo nude u paketu kao mamac za svjetsko prvenstvo u nogometu’ 25 April 2007 <http://www.ured-ravnopravnost.hr/page.php?id=237&type=article>.

  140. 140.

    Machiko Kanetake, ‘Whose Zero Tolerance Counts? Reassessing a Zero Tolerance Policy against Sexual Exploitation and Abuse by UN Peacekeepers’ (2010) 17(2) International Peacekeeping, 202–203.

  141. 141.

    Ibid 202.

  142. 142.

    Defeis, above n 76, 205.

  143. 143.

    Ibid.

  144. 144.

    Kate Grady, ‘Sexual Exploitation and Abuse by UN Peacekeepers: A Threat to Impartiality’, (2010) 17(2) International Peacekeeping 215, 217.

  145. 145.

    Anna Shotton, ‘A Strategy to Address Sexual Exploitation by U.N. Peacekeeping Personnel’, (2006) 39 Cornell Law Review 97,103.

  146. 146.

    Defeis, above n 76,108; Machiko Kanetake, above n 140, 209.

  147. 147.

    Jody Freeman, ‘The Feminist Debate over Prostitution Reform: Prostitutes’ Rights Groups, Radical Feminists, and the (Im)possibility of Consent’ (1990) 5 Berkeley Women’s Law Journal 94.

  148. 148.

    Shannon Bell, Reading, Writing and Rewriting the Prostituted Body (Indiana University Press, 1994); Wendy Chapkis, Performing Erotic Labor (Routledge, 1997); Gail Pheterson, A Vindication of the Rights of Whores (The Seal Press, 1989) and The Prostitution Prism (Amsterdam University Press, 1996).

  149. 149.

    Martha C.Nussbaum, Sex and Social Justice (Oxford University Press, 1999) 281.

  150. 150.

    Ibid.

  151. 151.

    Anne Phillips, above n 78, ‘Feminism and Liberalism Revisited: Has Martha Nussbaum Got It Right?’ (2001) 8(2) Constellations 262,254.

  152. 152.

    Ibid 262.

  153. 153.

    Ibid 264.

  154. 154.

    Carole Pateman, The Sexual Contract (1988) 202.

  155. 155.

    Holly B. Fetcher, ‘Three Stories of Prostitution in the West: Prostitutes ‘Groups, Law and Feminist “Truth”’, (1994) 4 Columbia Journal of Gender and Law 26.

  156. 156.

    Alison Jaggar, ‘Is Globalization Good for Women?’ (2001) 53(4) Comparative Literature 306.

  157. 157.

    Jo Doezema, ‘Choice in Prostitution’ in Conference Book: Changing Faces of Prostitution, Helsinki 3–5 May, 1995 (Helsinki: Unioni, The League of Finnish Feminists); Alison Murray, ‘Debt Bondage and Trafficking: Don’t Believe the Hype’ in K. Kampadoo and J. Doezema, Global Sex Worker’s Rights: Rights, Resistance and, Redefinition (Routledge, 1998).

  158. 158.

    Kempadoo and Doezema, Ibid 1,11.

  159. 159.

    Ibid128.

  160. 160.

    Ibid 11.

  161. 161.

    Kapur, above n 84, 11.

  162. 162.

    Jo Doezema,‘Ouch! Western Feminists’ ‘Wounded Attachment’ to the ‘Third World Prostitute’ 67 (2001) Feminist Review 16.

  163. 163.

    Taimur Khan et al, ‘Sex Workers Project at the Urban Justice Center, Critique of the Anti-Prostitution Pledge and its Global Impact’ (2007) <http://www.sexworkersproject.org/media-toolkit/downloads/20070330-BriefingPaperOnAnti-ProstitutionPledge.pdf>.

  164. 164.

    Milena Simic and Tim Rhodes, ‘Violence, Dignity and HIV Vulnerability: Street Sex Work in Serbia’, (2009) 31(1) Sociology of Health and Illness 5.

  165. 165.

    Ibid 6.

  166. 166.

    Ibid13.

  167. 167.

    Ibid14.

  168. 168.

    Ronald Weitzer, ‘Moral Crusade against Prostitution’ (2006) 43 (3) Society 33.

  169. 169.

    SANGRAM, ‘Are we not Women? Women in Prostitution, Feminist Activists, and Sex Worker’s Rights Groups in Dialogue’ (2008) 14 Point of View 12.

  170. 170.

    Kamala Kempadoo, ‘Women of Color and the Global Sex Trade: Transnational Feminist Perspectives’ (2001) 1(3) Meridians 28.

  171. 171.

    Outshoorn, above n. 122, 146.

  172. 172.

    Otto, above n 77, 260.

  173. 173.

    Ibid.

  174. 174.

    Muna Ndulo, ‘The United Nations Responses To The Sexual Abuse And Exploitation Of Women And Girls By Peacekeeping Missions’ (2008) 27(1) Berkeley Journal of International Law 143.

  175. 175.

    ‘Exchange of money, employment, goods or services for sex, including sexual favors or other forms of humiliating, degrading or exploitative behaviour, is prohibited.’ Secretary-General Bulletin, above n 4, section 3.2 (c).

  176. 176.

    Carmichael, above n 83, 29.

  177. 177.

    Otto, above n 77.

  178. 178.

    Ibid 41.

  179. 179.

    Ibid 53.

  180. 180.

    Bob Connell, ‘Masculinities, violence and Peacemaking’ Peace News (online), 2001 <http://www.peacenews.info/issues/2443/connell.html>.

  181. 181.

    Maggie O’Neill, Prostitution and Feminism: Towards a Policy of Feeling (Wiley-Blackwell, 2001) 18.

  182. 182.

    Chi Mgbako and Laura Smith, ‘Sex Work and Human Rights in Africa’ (2011) 33(4) Fordham International Law Journal 1179.

  183. 183.

    Vicki Schultz, ‘Sex and Work’ (2006) 18 The Yale Journal of Law and Feminism 233.

  184. 184.

    Ibid 227.

  185. 185.

    United Nations General Assembly, Comprehensive review of the whole question of peacekeeping operations in all their aspects, GA Res A/59/710 (24 March 2005).

  186. 186.

    Ibid.

  187. 187.

    Report of the Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations and its Working Group on the 2005 resumed session, GA A/59/19/Add.1, 59th session (New York, 4–8 April 2005).

  188. 188.

    Seventeenth report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of Congo, UN Doc S/2005/167 (15 March 2005) para 68.

  189. 189.

    Paul Higate, ‘Revealing the Soldier: Peacekeeping and Prostitution’ (2003) 1(5) American Sexuality Magazine; Paul Higate, ‘Gender and Peacekeeping Case Studies: The Democratic Republic of the Congo and Sierra Leone’ (Pretoria: Gender and Peacekeeping, Institute for Secuity Studies, 2004) 91 Monograph; Paul Higate and Marsha Henry, ‘Engendering (In)security in Peace Support Operations’, Security Dialogue (2004) 35 (4); P. Higate, ‘Peacekeepers and Gender: DRC and Sierra Leone’, Pambazuka News (online) 7 August 2004 <http://www.pambazuka.org/en/category/features/23056>; Paul Higate, ‘Peacekeepers, masculinities, and sexual exploitation’, (2007) 10 (1) Men and Masculinities 99.

  190. 190.

    Ibid Higate, ‘Gender and Peacekeeping Case Studies: The Democratic Republic of the Congo and Sierra Leone’ 5.

  191. 191.

    Ibid.

  192. 192.

    Ibid 21.

  193. 193.

    Ibid.

  194. 194.

    Ibid 6.

  195. 195.

    Ibid 15.

  196. 196.

    Ibid 32.

  197. 197.

    Ibid 37.

  198. 198.

    Ibid 13.

  199. 199.

    Higate, ‘Revealing the Soldier: Peacekeeping and Prostitution', above n 189,1.

  200. 200.

    Higate and Henry, above n 189, 481.

  201. 201.

    Ibid 483.

  202. 202.

    Ibid 490.

  203. 203.

    Paul Higate, ‘Revealing the Soldier: Peacekeeping and Prostitution’, above n 189,1.

  204. 204.

    Paul Higate, ‘Gender and Peacekeeping Case Studies: The Democratic Republic of the Congo and Sierra Leone’, above n 189, 22.

  205. 205.

    Ibid.

  206. 206.

    Ibid.

  207. 207.

    Ibid.

  208. 208.

    Sarah Martin, ‘Must Boys be Boys? Ending Sexual Exploitation & Abuse in UN Peacekeeping Missions’ (Refugees International, 2005) iv.

  209. 209.

    Ibid 3.

  210. 210.

    Ibid.

  211. 211.

    Ibid 6.

  212. 212.

    Ibid.

  213. 213.

    Ibid 15.

  214. 214.

    Ibid 16.

  215. 215.

    Ibid 24.

  216. 216.

    Ibid.

  217. 217.

    Ibid.

  218. 218.

    Ibid vi.

  219. 219.

    Daniel Gustafsson, Peacekeeping and Prostitution: A Case Study of the Swedish Experience from Kosovo and Bosnia (MA Thesis, University of Lund, 2005).

  220. 220.

    Ibid 8.

  221. 221.

    Ibid 6.

  222. 222.

    Ibid.

  223. 223.

    Ibid 42.

  224. 224.

    Ibid.

  225. 225.

    Ibid 44.

  226. 226.

    Ibid 53.

  227. 227.

    Ibid 50.

  228. 228.

    Kathleen M. Jennings, 'Protecting Whom?: Approaches to Sexual Exploitation and Abuse in UN Peacekeeping Operations' (Fafo, 2008).

  229. 229.

    Ibid 10.

  230. 230.

    Ibid 62.

  231. 231.

    Higate and Henry, above n 189, 491.

  232. 232.

    Jennings, above n 228, 64.

  233. 233.

    Ibid.

  234. 234.

    Ibid 47.

  235. 235.

    Ibid 8.

  236. 236.

    Ibid 65.

  237. 237.

    Ibid 23.

  238. 238.

    Ibid 23.

  239. 239.

    Ibid 58.

  240. 240.

    Ibid 70.

  241. 241.

    Otto, above n 94, 262.

  242. 242.

    Katherine M. Franke, 'Theorizing Yes: An Essay on Feminism, Law, and Desire' (2001) 101(1) Columbia Law Review 199.

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    Olivera Simic

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Simic, O. (2012). The Secretary-General’s Bulletin: Evolution and Reception. In: Regulation of Sexual Conduct in UN Peacekeeping Operations. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28484-7_3

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