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Switzerland: Brain Research and the Law

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International Neurolaw

Abstract

Many of the so far discussed methods of neurosciences have not yet reached a state in which they can be taken as reliable. Thus, the discussion on their application is still at a very early stage. However, it is the task of law to provide a legal compass showing the direction in which new technical developments have to be measured. In this context, one should not only see the risks of neuroscientific developments, but also bear in mind the new opportunities and chances.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See Schleim 2008 or Roth 2003.

  2. 2.

    Pauen/Roth, p. 72 et seq.

  3. 3.

    See Kiehl, Piefke/Markowitsch 2008, Neuroanatomische und neurofunktionelle Grundlagen gestörter kognitiv‐emotionaler Verarbeitungsprozesse bei Straftätern, in: Grün et al., p. 96 et seq. and Roth, p. 115 et seq.

  4. 4.

    See Schleim 2008, p. 39 et seq., p. 65.

  5. 5.

    Ibid., p. 65.

  6. 6.

    Ibid., l.c.

  7. 7.

    Ibid., p. 34 et seq.

  8. 8.

    Ibid., p. 79 et seq.

  9. 9.

    Schleim 2008, p. 66 et seq.

  10. 10.

    Rösler 2008, Was verraten die Libet‐Experimente über den “freien Willen”? ‐ Leider nicht sehr viel!, in: Lampe/Pauen/Roth, p. 145 et seq.

  11. 11.

    Helmrich 2004, Wir können auch anders: Kritik der Libet-Experimente, in: Geyer, p. 94 et seq.

  12. 12.

    See Bennet/Hacker 2010, passim.

  13. 13.

    Mahlmann 2010, §18, margin number 22.

  14. 14.

    Schleim 2008, p. 79 et seq.

  15. 15.

    Ibid., p. 35.

  16. 16.

    See Singer, p. 24 et seq.

  17. 17.

    See Roth, p. 166 et seq.

  18. 18.

    Senn 2008, Grenzen und Risiken der Hirnforschung: Folgerungen für die Rechtsordnung, in: Fachtagung Zürich, p. 11.

  19. 19.

    Ibid., p. 11 et seq.

  20. 20.

    Hell 2008, Das Gehirn ist kein Agent – Konsequenzen der Hirnforschung für das Recht (aus psychiatrischer Sicht), in: Fachtagung Zürich, p. 13.

  21. 21.

    Tag 2008, Schnittstellen zwischen Recht, Gehirn und Technik, in: Fachtagung Zürich, p. 62.

  22. 22.

    Senn 2008, Grenzen und Risiken der Hirnforschung: Folgerungen für die Rechtsordnung, in: Fachtagung Zürich, p. 7 et seq.

  23. 23.

    See Tag 2007, Neurowissenschaft und Strafrecht, in: Holdegger et al., p. 350 as well as Gschwend 2006, Konsequenzen aus den Erkenntnissen der Hirnforschung für Straf- und Privatrecht, in: Senn/Puskás, p. 149.

  24. 24.

    See e.g. Bommer 2007, Hirnforschung und Schuldstrafrecht, in: Stichweh/Bommer, p. 31 or Hillenkamp 2007, Das limbische System: Der Täter hinter dem Täter?, in: Hillenkamp, p. 98 et seq.

  25. 25.

    Schleim 2008, p. 9.

  26. 26.

    See also Hillenkamp 2006, Das limbische System: Der Täter hinter dem Täter?, in: Hillenkamp, p. 95.

  27. 27.

    In Switzerland: Bundesverfassung, from now on cited as BV.

  28. 28.

    See Ehrenzeller 2008, Zur Präambel, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 7.

  29. 29.

    Ibid., margin number 17.

  30. 30.

    Ibid., margin number 26.

  31. 31.

    Ibid., margin number 26.

  32. 32.

    Art. 2 para. 1 BV: The Swiss Confederation shall protect the liberty and rights of the people and safeguard the independence and security of the country.

  33. 33.

    Compare Ehrenzeller 2008, on art. 2, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 15.

  34. 34.

    All individuals shall take responsibility for themselves and shall, according to their abilities, contribute to achieving the tasks of the state and society.

  35. 35.

    This is the opinion of Häberle 2008, on art. 6 BV, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 10.

  36. 36.

    Ibid., margin number 11.

  37. 37.

    See ibid., margin number 13.

  38. 38.

    Ibid., margin number 14.

  39. 39.

    Müller 2007, Geschichtliche Grundlagen, Zielsetzung und Funktionen der Grundrechte, in: Merten et al., margin number 22.

  40. 40.

    Müller 2001, Allgemeine Bemerkungen zu den Grundrechten, in: Thürer et al., margin number 6.

  41. 41.

    Schweizer 2008, St. Galler Kommentar zur Bundesverfassung, Vorbemerkungen on art. 7–36 BV, margin number 5 et seq., 15 et seq.

  42. 42.

    Müller 2001, Allgemeine Bemerkungen zu den Grundrechten, in: Thürer et al., margin number 6.

  43. 43.

    On that note also see Gschwend 2006, Konsequenzen aus den Erkenntnissen der Hirnforschung für Straf- und Privatrecht, in: Senn/Puskás, p. 148.

  44. 44.

    See the Kantian conception of freedom as it has been presented by Höffe (Höffe 2004, Der entlarvte Ruck. Was sagt Kant den Hirnforschern?, in: Geyer, p. 181).

  45. 45.

    About the “legal value of freedom” see Mahlmann 2010, §27, margin number 1 et seq.

  46. 46.

    For instance Roth/Merkel 2008, Bestrafung oder Therapie? Möglichkeiten und Grenzen staatlicher Sanktion unter Berücksichtigung der Hirnforschung, in: Fachtagung Zürich, p. 21 et seq.

  47. 47.

    See also the critique of Senn (Senn 2008, Grenzen und Risiken der Hirnforschung, in: Fachtagung Zürich, p. 4).

  48. 48.

    See Möllers 2008, Willensfreiheit durch Verfassungsrecht, in: Lampe/Pauen/Roth, p. 270 et seq.

  49. 49.

    Meyer/Hafner 2008, on art. 20, in Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 1 et seq.

  50. 50.

    Art. 20 BV (Freedom of research and teaching is guaranteed.) and also art. 15 subpara. 3 UNO‐Treaty I, art. 19 UNO‐Treaty II and art. 10 ECHR on the international scale.

  51. 51.

    Botschaft HFG, p. 8092.

  52. 52.

    Meyer/Hafner 2002, on art. 20, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 3 et seq., art. 3 FIFG (Federal Act of October, 7th 1983 on the promotion of research and innovation (SR 420. 1)) and Schweizer 2007, Wissenschaftsfreiheit und Kunstfreiheit, in: Merten et al., margin number 12.

  53. 53.

    Meyer/Hafner 2002, on art. 20, in Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 7 and Schweizer 2007, Wissenschaftsfreiheit und Kunstfreiheit, in: Merten et al., margin number 18 et seq.

  54. 54.

    Art. 27 BV: Economic freedom is guaranteed (para. 1).

  55. 55.

    See Vallender 2008, on art. 72, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 18 with reference to Swiss Federal Court Decision BGE 125 I 277.

  56. 56.

    Art. 15 BV and art. 9 EMRK and art. 18 UNO-Treaty II.

  57. 57.

    See Cavelti/Kley 2008, on art. 15, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 3 et seq.

  58. 58.

    See for the further limitations of the freedom of research: Schweizer 2007, Wissenschaftsfreiheit und Kunstfreiheit, in: Merten et al., margin number 25.

  59. 59.

    Schweizer/Hafner 2008, on art. 20, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 19 et seq.

  60. 60.

    Van Spyk, p. 315.

  61. 61.

    Meyer/Hafner 2008, on art. 20, margin number 13, as well as van Spyk, p. 313.

  62. 62.

    Art. 7 BV: Human dignity must be respected and protected.

  63. 63.

    Art. 10 BV: Everyone has the right to life. The death penalty is prohibited (para. 1). Everyone has the right to personal liberty and in particular to physical and mental integrity and to freedom of movement (para. 2).

  64. 64.

    Meyer/Hafner 2002, on art. 20, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 11 and Tag 2007, Neurowissenschaft und Strafrecht, in: Holdegger et al., p. 352 et seq.

  65. 65.

    See on this van Spyk, p. 328 et seq.

  66. 66.

    Ibid., p. 325.

  67. 67.

    Schweizer/van Spyk, p. 572 et seq, Mastronardi 2008, on art. 7, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 42 et seq., 49 and Schweizer/Hafner 2008, on art. 20, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 24 et seq.

  68. 68.

    Van Spyk, p. 327. Schweizer/Hafner 2008, on art. 20, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 27.

  69. 69.

    Children and young people have the right to the special protection of their integrity and to the encouragement of their development (para. 1). They may personally exercise their rights to the extent that their power of judgement allows (para. 2).

  70. 70.

    See on this Schweizer/van Spyk, p. 563 et seq.

  71. 71.

    Convention of November 20th, 1989 on the Rights of the Child.

  72. 72.

    See in detail: Sprecher 2007, p. 95 et seq.

  73. 73.

    See Tag 2007, Neurowissenschaft und Strafrecht, in: Holdegger et al., p. 350 et seq.

  74. 74.

    Hell 2007, Moderne Erkenntnisse verändern das Ich-Bewusstsein, in: Holdegger et al., p. 370 et seq.

  75. 75.

    Tag 2007, Neurowissenschaft und Strafrecht, in: Holdegger et al., p. 350.

  76. 76.

    Art. 8 BV: Everyone shall be equal before the law (para. 1). No one may be discriminated against, in particular on grounds of origin, race, gender, age, language, social position, way of life, religious, ideological, or political convictions, or because of a physical, mental or psychological disability (para. 2).

  77. 77.

    See Schweizer 2008, on art. 8, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 20.

  78. 78.

    Ibid. margin number 22.

  79. 79.

    See Kiesewetter 2010, p. 2 et seq.

  80. 80.

    Gschwend 2006, Konsequenzen aus den Erkenntnissen der Hirnforschung für Straf- und Privatrecht, in: Senn/Puskás, p. 150 et seq.

  81. 81.

    See Eggenberger‐Bigler 2008, on art. 8, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 103 et seq.

  82. 82.

    Helmchen 2007, Therapiemöglichkeiten in der Psychiatrie: Modellfall Psychopharmakotherapie, in: Holdegger et al., p. 381.

  83. 83.

    Kesselring 2007, Neurologische Aspekte des Lernens – Lektionen aus der Neurorehabilitation, in: Holdegger et al., p. 417 et seq.

  84. 84.

    See Pousaz 2011, Neuroprosthetics: the mind is the pilot (EPFL – news), <http://actu.epfl.ch/news/neuroprosthetics-the-mind-is-the-pilot/>, accessed on 13/03/2011.

  85. 85.

    Also see Hildt 2007, Ethische Überlegungen zur Tiefenhirnstimulation, in: Holdegger et al., p. 457.

  86. 86.

    It [The Swiss Confederation] shall ensure the greatest possible equality of opportunity among its citizens.

  87. 87.

    See Ehrenzeller 2008, on art. 2, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 22.

  88. 88.

    Schweizer 2008, on art. 8, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 32.

  89. 89.

    See also art. 12 UNO‐Treaty I.

  90. 90.

    See Schweizer 2008, on art. 8, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 33.

  91. 91.

    Bigler‐Eggenberger 2008, on art. 41, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 29.

  92. 92.

    Ibid., margin number 37 et seq.

  93. 93.

    Ibid., margin number 39.

  94. 94.

    Art. 118b BV: The Confederation shall legislate on research on human beings where this is required in order to protect their dignity and privacy. In doing so, it shall preserve the freedom to conduct research and shall take account of the importance of research to health and society (para. 1).

  95. 95.

    Art. 11 et seq. Swiss Civil Code.

  96. 96.

    Child protection: art. 307 et seq. Swiss Civil Code, guardianship: art. 360 et seq. Swiss Civil Code.

  97. 97.

    Art. 122 BV: The Confederation shall be responsible for legislation in the field of civil law and the law of civil procedure (para. 1).

  98. 98.

    The Confederation and the Cantons shall (…) endeavour to ensure that: (…) children and young people are encouraged to develop into independent and socially responsible people and are supported in their social, cultural and political integration (art. 41 para. 1 lit. g BV). See also art. 11 and art. 10 para. 2 BV.

  99. 99.

    Bigler-Eggenberger 2008, on art. 41, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 76.

  100. 100.

    Ibid., margin number 80.

  101. 101.

    Helmchen 2007, Therapiemöglichkeiten in der Psychiatrie: Modellfall Psychopharmakotherapie, in: Holdegger et al., p. 392.

  102. 102.

    Ibid., p. 392.

  103. 103.

    See ibid., p. 392.

  104. 104.

    See also ibid., p. 392.

  105. 105.

    Bommer 2007, Hirnforschung und Schuldstrafrecht, in: Stichweh/Bommer, p. 25.

  106. 106.

    Ibid., p. 26; as well as Gschwend 2006, Konsequenzen aus den Erkenntnissen der Hirnforschung für Straf- und Privatrecht, in: Senn/Puskás, p. 148 et seq.

  107. 107.

    Tag 2007, Neurowissenschaften und Strafrecht, in: Holdegger et al., p. 351.

  108. 108.

    Schleim, p. 9.

  109. 109.

    Bommer 2007, Hirnforschung und Schuldstrafrecht, in: Stichweh/Bommer, p. 30.

  110. 110.

    Mahlmann 2010, §25, margin number 6 et seq.

  111. 111.

    Art. 5 BV. All activities of the state shall be based on and limited by law (para. 1). State activities must be conducted in the public interest and be proportionate to the ends sought (para. 2).

  112. 112.

    Hangartner 2008, on art. 5, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 11.

  113. 113.

    See art. 5 para. 2 BV and art. 36 para 3 BV (Any restrictions on fundamental rights must be proportionate.)

  114. 114.

    See art. 5 ECHR and art. 9 UNO-Treaty II.

  115. 115.

    Everyone has the right to privacy in their private and family life and in their home, and in relation to their mail and telecommunications (para. 1). Everyone has the right to be protected against the misuse of their personal data (para. 2). And also art. 8 EHCR and art. 17 UNO-Treaty II.

  116. 116.

    In particular art. 8 para. 2 BV and also see Schweizer 2007, on art. 8, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 70.

  117. 117.

    Art. 29–32 BV, art. 6 ECHR.

  118. 118.

    In principle the preventive custody of a mentally ill person is indisputable nowadays. However, the ECtHR has ruled on this, that even in such cases access to a court and fair proceedings according to art. 5 para. 4 ECHR and art. 6 para. 1 ECHR must be granted (Winterwerp v. The Netherlands (no. 6301/73), §67 and §75).

  119. 119.

    Compare for instance Hell 2008, Das Gehim ist kein Agent, in: Fachtagung Zürich, p. 19.

  120. 120.

    Anyone whose case falls to be judicially decided has the right to have their case heard by a legally constituted, competent, independent and impartial court. Ad hoc courts are prohibited (para. 1).

  121. 121.

    As well as art. 6 ECHR and art. 14 UNO-Treaty II.

  122. 122.

    Grabenwarter 2009, §24, margin number 120 et seq.

  123. 123.

    See Schweizer 2008, on art. 13, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 42.

  124. 124.

    Federal Act of 19 June 1992 on Data Protection (FADP, SR 235.1).

  125. 125.

    Art. 13 para. 1 BV as well as art. 8 para. 1 ECHR and art. 7 of the Charter Of Fundamental Rights Of The European Union.

  126. 126.

    Breitenmoser 2008, on art. 13, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 13 et seq., Schweizer 2008, on art. 13, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 41 et seq.

  127. 127.

    Everyone has the right to privacy in their private and family life and in their home, and in relation to their mail and telecommunications.

  128. 128.

    Everyone has the right to be protected against the misuse of their personal data.

  129. 129.

    Schweizer 2008, on art. 13, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 39.

  130. 130.

    Ibid., margin number 41.

  131. 131.

    Art. 8 FADP, compare also art. 8 of the draft for a Federal Act on Research on Human Beings (BBl 2009 8163).

  132. 132.

    See Schweizer 2008, on art. 13, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 45 et seq.

  133. 133.

    Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine of April, 4th 1997 (SR 0.810.2/ETS 164).

  134. 134.

    Additional Protocol to the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine concerning Biomedical Research (ETS 195).

  135. 135.

    Schweizer 2008, on art. 13, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 49, 53. See the Council Framework Decision 2008/977/JHA of 27 November 2008 on the Protection of Personal Data Processed in the Framework of Police and Judicial Cooperation in Criminal Matters (OJ L350/60) and also the Federal Act of March, 19th 2010 on the Implementation of the Council Framework Decision 2008/977/JHA on the Protection of Personal Data Processed in the Framework of Police and Judicial Cooperation in Criminal Matters (AS 2010 3387) or e.g. art. 4, 12 et seq., 15 et seq. of the Federal Act of June, 13th 2008 on the Police Information Systems of the Federal Government (SR 361).

  136. 136.

    Art. 121 Swiss Criminal Code and art. 35 of the Federal Act on Data Protection.

  137. 137.

    See art. 14 para. 1 sentence 2 and art. 18 of the Federal Act of March, 21st 1997 on Measures of Ensuring Inner Security (SR 120) and also the decision of the Federal Commission on Data Protection, ZBI 108 (2007), p. 392–401, in special: considerations 5b and 5c.

  138. 138.

    Schweizer 2008, on art. 13, in: Ehrenzeller et al., margin number 53.

  139. 139.

    As far as it hasn't been subject to chapter 2.2.1 yet.

  140. 140.

    E.g. the “Declaration of Helsinki”, the “International Guidelines for Biomedical Research involving Human Subjects” (CIOMS‐Guidelines), the “Guideline for Good Clinical Practice” (GCP) and so on (see in detail Schweizer/van Spyk 2007, p. 548 et seq.).

  141. 141.

    See Tag 2007, Neurowissenschaft und Strafrecht, in: Holdegger et al., p. 352.

  142. 142.

    Botschaft HFG, p. 8046 et seq.

  143. 143.

    The Confederation shall legislate on research on human beings where this is required in order to protect their dignity and privacy. In doing so, it shall preserve the freedom to conduct research and shall take account of the importance of research to health and society (para. 1).

  144. 144.

    See art. 4 of the draft of the Federal Act on Research on Human Beings. On this Botschaft HFG, p. 8046.

  145. 145.

    See art. 15 of the draft of the Federal Act on Research on Human Beings. On this Botschaft HFG, p. 8097.

  146. 146.

    In detail: Schweizer/van Spyk 2007, p. 556 et seq.

  147. 147.

    See e.g. Sprecher 2007, p. 15 et seq., Botschaft of September, 12th 2001 concerning the European Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (SR 01.056), p. 313 et seq., art. 16 of the European Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine and also art. 4 et seq. of the draft of the Federal Act on Research on Human Beings.

  148. 148.

    Sprecher 2007, p. 200.

  149. 149.

    Ibid., p. 200 et seq.

  150. 150.

    See on this the critique on the principle of informed consent by Sprecher (Sprecher 2007, p. 232 et seq.).

  151. 151.

    See art. 17 of the European Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine and art. 21 et seq. of the draft of the Federal Act on Research on Human Beings.

  152. 152.

    See van Spyk, p. 108, 111.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Forschungsgemeinschaft für Rechtswissenschaft der Universität St. Gallen, Bodanstrasse 6, St. Gallen, 9000, Switzerland

    Rainer J. Schweizer & Severin Bischof

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  1. Rainer J. Schweizer
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Correspondence to Rainer J. Schweizer or Severin Bischof .

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  1. , Institute of Science and Ethics, University of Bonn, Bonner Talweg 57, Bonn, 53113, Germany

    Tade Matthias Spranger

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Schweizer, R.J., Bischof, S. (2012). Switzerland: Brain Research and the Law. In: Spranger, T. (eds) International Neurolaw. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-21541-4_15

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