Abstract
The basal ganglia are a group of closely connected cell masses, forming a continuum, extending from the telencephalon to the midbrain tegmentum (Sect. 11.2). This complex comprises the striatum (the nucleus caudatus and the putamen, largely separated by the internal capsule), the globus pallidus, the subthalamic nucleus and the substantia nigra. The output of the basal ganglia is aimed at the ventral anterior (VA) and ventrolateral (VL) thalamic nuclei or VA–VL complex (parts of the motor thalamus), the centromedian thalamic nucleus, the habenula, the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus and the superior colliculus. In most non-primate mammals, the caudate and putamen are not clearly separated by an internal capsule and are known as the caudate–putamen complex or striatum. In primates, the globus pallidus consists of external or lateral and internal or medial segments. In other mammals, the entopeduncular nucleus is the homologue of the internal segment. The caudate nucleus, the putamen and the globus pallidus form the dorsal part of the striatal complex. The nucleus accumbens, both cytoarchitectonically and histochemically closely resembling the caudate nucleus and the putamen, and the greater part of the olfactory tubercle form the ventral striatum. The rostral part of the substantia innominata forms a ventral extension of the globus pallidus and is known as the ventral pallidum.
The cerebral cortex has extensive connections with the striatum that, via the globus pallidus and ventral thalamic nuclei, projects back to the motor, premotor and prefrontal areas of the cortex. Sensorimotor association and limbic cortical areas project in a segregated tripartite manner onto the striatum, and give rise to cortico-striato-pallido-thalamocortical circuits or re-entrant loops (Sect. 11.3). The putamen processes motor information in particular, the caudate nucleus cognitive information, and the nucleus accumbens emotional and motivational information. The Albin–DeLong model of basal ganglia circuitry involves two major striatal efferent pathways to the main output stations, known as the direct and indirect pathways, the first to facilitate or induce movements and the second to “brake” movements. Although challenged by the increasing complexity brought about by anatomical, physiological and clinical observations, this model still serves as a basis to explain pathophysiological mechanisms underlying motor disorders (Sect. 11.4). Many diseases of the basal ganglia have some disorder of movement as their primary symptom, ranging from an excess of (abnormal) involuntary movements such as in chorea to a poverty and slowness of movement as in Parkinson disease and Parkinson-plus disorders as illustrated in several Clinical cases (Sect. 11.5).
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ten Donkelaar, H.J. (2011). Basal Ganglia. In: Clinical Neuroanatomy. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-19134-3_11
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