Abstract
Most of unwanted fires are fuelled by polymeric materials, ranging from natural polymers found in wood, cotton or wool, to synthetic polymers (“plastics”) derived from crude oil, showing much greater flammability. Polymer molecules are too large to be volatile, but break down thermally, by chain scission and chain stripping, to release fuel to the vapour phase prior to ignition. Experimental and numerical methods for investigating polymer decomposition are reviewed, followed by a description of the chemical decomposition of individual polymers. In order to use flammable synthetic polymers in high risk applications, fire retardants are frequently added to meet regulatory requirements. The range of available fire retardants is described in relation to their different modes of action. This is followed by a description of the more common test methods used to assess the flammability of polymeric materials, including ignitability, flame spread and heat release rate, together with a summary of the importance of physical properties and char formation on their burning behaviour.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
ASTM E176, “Standard Terminology of Fire Standards”, in Annual Book of ASTM Standards, 4.07, American Society for Testing Materials, West Conshohocken.
J.M.G. Cowie and V. Arrighi, Polymers: Chemistry and Physics of Modern Materials, 3rd Edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton (2008).
S.I. Stoliarov, N. Safronava, and R.E. Lyon, “The effect of variation in polymer properties on the rate of burning”, Fire and Materials, 33, pp. 257–271 (2009).
S.C. Moldoveanu, Analytical Pyrolysis of Synthetic Organic Polymers, Techniques and Instrumentation in Analytical Chemistry, Volume 25, 1st Edition, Elsevier B.V (2005).
R.E. Lyon, “Plastics and Rubber”, In Handbook of Building Materials for Fire Protection, Harper CA (ed), McGraw-Hill, Chap 3:3.1–3.51 (2004).
B. Schartel and T.R. Hull, “Development of fire-retarded materials - Interpretation of cone calorimeter data”, Fire and Materials, 31 (5), pp. 327–354 (2007).
A. Fina and G. Camino, Ignition mechanisms in polymers and polymer nanocomposites, Polym. Adv. Technol., 22, 1147–1155, (2011)
S. L. Madorsky, Thermal Degradation of Organic Polymers, Interscience, John Wiley, New York (1964).
“Plastics – Thermogravimetry (TG) of polymers – General Principles”, ISO 11358 (1997).
P.G. Laye, Differential Thermal Analysis and Differential Scanning Calorimetry, in Principles of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, Edited by P.J. Haines, Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK (2002).
ISO 11357–1 to 6:2005–2011 “Plastics - Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) - Parts 1–6.
M. Reading, A. Luget, and R. Wilson, “Modulated differential scanning calorimetry”, Thermochimica Acta, 238, pp. 295–307 (1994).
S. Zhang, T.R. Hull, A.R. Horrocks, G. Smart, B.K. Kandola, J. Ebdon, P. Joseph and B. Hunt: Thermal degradation analysis and XRD characterisation of fibre-forming synthetic polypropylene containing nanoclay: Polym.Degrad.Stab., 92, 727–732, (2007).
A. Witkowski, A.A. Stec and T.R. Hull, The influence of metal hydroxide fire retardants and nanoclay on the thermal decomposition of EVA, Polym. Degrad. Stab., 97, 2231–2240, (2012).
M. Sacristan, T.R. Hull, A.A. Stec, J.C. Ronda, M. Galia, and V. Cadiz, “Cone calorimetry studies of fire retardant soybean-oil-based copolymers containing silicon or boron: Comparison of additive and reactive approaches,” Polymer Degradation and Stability, 95, pp. 1269–1274 (2010).
I.C. McNeill, L. Ackerman, S.N. Gupta, M. Zulfiquar, and S. Zulfiquar, “Part A: Polymer Chemistry”, Journal of Polymer Science, 15, p. 2381 (1977).
J.P. Lewicki, K. Pielichowski, P.T. De La Croix, B. Janowski, D. Todd, and J.J. Liggat, “Thermal degradation studies of polyurethane/POSS nanohybrid elastomers”, Polymer Degradation and Stability, 95, pp. 1099–105 (2010).
ASTM D7309-11, “Standard test method for determining flammability characteristics of plastics and other solid materials using microscale combustion calorimetry” (2011).
R.E. Lyon and R.N. Walters, “Pyrolysis combustion flow calorimetry”, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 71, pp. 27–46 (2004).
S. Bourbigot, M.L. Bras, F. Dabrowski, J.W. Gilman and T. Kashiwagi, “PA-6 clay nanocomposite hybrid as char forming agent in intumescent formulations”, Fire Mater., 24, 201–208, (2000).
M.V. Petrova, F.A. Williams, A small detailed chemical-kinetic mechanism for hydrocarbon combustion, Combustion and Flame, 144, 526–544,(2006).
R. E. Lyon, N. Safronava, and S. I. Stoliarov, The Role of Thermal Decomposition Kinetics in the Burning of Polymers. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Fire Science and Engineering (INTERFLAM), 2010.
L. Reich and S.S. Stivala, Elements of Polymer Degradation, McGraw-Hill, New York (1971).
K. McGrattan, R. McDermott, and W. Mell, et al., “Modeling the burning of complicated objects using Lagrangian particles”, in Conference proceedings of the twelfth international interflame conference, pp. 743–753 (2010).
R.E. Lyon, N. Safronava, and E. Oztekin, “A simple method for determining kinetic parameters for materials in fire models”, Fire Safety Science, 10, pp. 765–777 (2011).
H. L. Friedman, “New methods for evaluating kinetic parameters from thermal analysis data”, Journal of Polymer Science, Polymer Letter 7(1), pp. 41–46 (1969).
C. Lautenberger, G. Rein, and C. Fernandez-Pello, “The application of a genetic algorithm to estimate material properties for fire modeling from bench-scale fire test data”, Fire Safety Journal, 41, pp. 204–214 (2006).
G. Rein, C. Lautenberger, and C. Fernandez-Pello, “Application of genetic algorithms and thermogravimetry to determine the kinetics of polyurethane foam in smoldering combustion”, Combustion and Flame, 146, pp. 95–108 (2006).
A. Matala, S. Hostikka and J. Mangs, “Estimation of pyrolysis model parameters for solid materials using thermogravimetric data”, Fire Safety Science, 9, pp. 1213–1223 (2009).
C. Lautenberger and C. Fernandez-Pello, “Generalized pyrolysis model for combustible solids”, Fire Safety Journal, 44, pp. 819–839 (2009).
C. Lautenberger and C. Fernandez-Pello, “Optimization algorithms for material pyrolysis property estimation”, Fire Safety Science, 10, pp. 751–764 (2011).
M. Chaos, M. M. Khan, and N. Krishnamoorthy, et al., “Evaluation of optimization schemes and determination of solid fuel properties for CFD fire models using bench-scale pyrolysis tests”, Proceedings of the Combustion Institute, 33(2), pp. 2599–2606 (2011).
A.K. Galwey and M.E. Brown, “Arrhenius parameters and compensation behaviour in solid-state decompositions”, Thermochimica Acta, 300, pp. 107–115 (1997).
A.V. Nikolaev, V.A. Logvinenko, and V.M. Gorbatchev, “Special features of the compensation effect in nonisothermal kinetics of solid-phase reactions”, Journal of Thermal Analysis, 6, pp. 473–577 (1974).
A. Matala and S. Hostikka, “Pyrolysis modeling of PVC cable materials”, Fire Safety Science, 10, pp. 917–930 (2011).
J.H. Flynn, in Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Engineering, ed. H.F. Mark, N.M. Bikales, C.G. Overberger, and G. Menges, pp. 690–723 (Suppl.), New York, Wiley (1989).
S. Vyazovkin and C.A. Wight, “Kinetics in Solids”, Annual Review of Physical Chemistry, 48,125-149 (1997).
S. Vyazovkin, and C.A. Wight, “Model-free and Model-Fitting Approaches to Kinetic Analysis of Isothermal and Nonisothermal Data”, Thermochimica Acta, 340/341, pp. 53–68 (1999).
J.H. Flynn and L.A. Wall, “General Treatment of the Thermogravimetry of Polymers”, Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards-A, Physics and Chemistry, 70A(6), pp. 487–523 (1966).
A.K. Galwey and M.E. Brown, “Kinetic Background to Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry”, in Handbook of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, Volume 1, Principles and Practice (M.E. Brown, ed.), Elsevier, New York, pp. 147–224 (1998).
H.E. Kissinger, “Variation of Peak Temperature with Heating Rate in Differential Thermal Analysis”, Journal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards, 57(4), pp. 217–221 (1956).
H.E. Kissinger, “Reaction Kinetics in Differential Thermal Analysis”, Analytical Chemistry, 29(11), pp. 1702–1706 (1957).
J.H. Flynn, “Temperature Dependence of the Rate of Reaction in Thermal Analysis”, Journal of Thermal Analysis, 36, pp. 1579–1573 (1990).
T. Ozawa, “Kinetic Analysis of Derivative Curves in Thermal Analysis”, Journal of Thermal Analysis, 2, pp. 301–324 (1970).
K.B. McGrattan, B. Klein, S. Hostikka, and J. Floyd, “Fire dynamics simulator (version 5) user’s guide”, NIST Special Publication 1019–5, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD (2007).
G.R. Heal, “Thermogravimetry and Derivative Thermogravimetry in Principles of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry”, (P. J. Haines, ed.), Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK (2002).
J. Criado, M. Gonzalez, A. Ortega and C. Real, “Some considerations regarding the determination of the activation energy of solid-state reactions from a series of isothermal data”, Journal of Thermal Analysis, 29, pp. 243–250 (1984).
F. Rogers and T. Ohlemiller, “Pyrolysis kinetics of a polyurethane foam by thermogravimetry; a general kinetic method”, Journal of Macromolecular Science, 1, pp. 169–185 (1981).
J.H. Sharp and S.A. Wentworth, ”Kinetic analysis of thermogravimetric data,” Analytical Chemistry, 41, pp. 2060–2062 (1969).
B.N.N. Achar, G.W. Brindley and J.H. Sharp, “Kinetics and mechanism of dehydroxylation processes,” Proceedings of the International Clay Conference, p. 67, Jerusalem (1966).
E.S. Freeman and B. Carroll, “The Application of Thermoanalytical Decomposition of Calcium Oxalate Monohydrate,” Journal of Physical Chemistry, 62, pp. 394–397 (1958).
E.S. Freeman and B. Carroll, “Interpretation of the kinetics of thermogravimetric analysis,” Journal of Physical Chemistry, 73, pp. 751–752 (1969).
A.W. Coats and J.P. Redfern, “Kinetic Parameters from Thermogravimetric Data,” Nature, 201, pp. 68–69 (1964).
A.W. Coats and J.P. Redfern, “Kinetic parameters from thermogravimetric data. II.,” Journal of Polymer Science, Part B: Polymer Letter 3, pp. 917–920 (1965).
J.P. Elder, “The general applicability of the Kissinger equation in thermal analysis,” Journal of Thermal Analysis, 30, pp. 657–669 (1985).
P. Simon, “Isoconversional methods: Fundamentals, meaning and application,” Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 76, pp. 123–132 (2004).
J. Zsako, “Kinetic Analysis of Thermogravimetric Data, VI, Some Problems of Deriving Kinetic Parameters from TG Curves,” Journal of Thermal Analysis, 5, pp. 239–251 (1973).
J. Zsako, “Kinetic analysis of thermogravimetric data XXIX. Remarks on the ‘many curves’ method,” Journal of Thermal Analysis, 46, pp. 1845–1864 (1996).
S. Vyazovkin, “Computational aspects of kinetic analysis.: Part C. The ICTAC Kinetics Project — the light at the end of the tunnel?,” Thermochimica Acta, 355, pp. 155–163 (2000).
A. Khawam and D.R. Flanagan, “Role of isoconversional methods in varying activation energies of solid-state kinetics. I. Isothermal kinetic studies,” Thermochimica Acta, 429, pp. 93–102 (2005).
T. Ozawa, “A new method of analyzing thermogravimetric data,” Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan, 38, pp. 1881–1886 (1965).
J.H. Flynn and L.A. Wall, “A quick, direct method for the determination of activation energy from thermogravimetric data,” Journal of Polymer Science, Part B: Polymer Letter, 4, pp. 323–328 (1966).
C. Doyle, “Kinetic analysis of thermogravimetric data”, Journal of Applied Polymer Science, Vol. 5, No. 15, pp. 285–292 (1961).
S. Vyazovkin and D. Dollimore, “Linear and Nonlinear Procedures in Isoconversional Computations of the Activation Energy of Nonisothermal Reactions in Solids,” Journal of Chemical Information and Computer Sciences, 36, pp. 42–45 (1996).
M.E. Brown, Introduction to thermal analysis: Techniques and applications, Chapter 10, 2nd ed, Kluwer, Amsterdam (2001).
A.K. Galwey and M.E. Brown, “Thermal decomposition of ionic solids: Chemical properties and reactivities of ionic crystalline phases”, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 139–171 (1999).
W. Gautschi and W.F. Cahill, “Exponential integral and related functions”, in Handbook of mathematical functions with formulas, graphs, and mathematical tables (M. Abramowitz and I. Stegun, eds.), National Bureau of Standards, Washington, DC, pp. 227–237 (1964).
S. Vyazovkin, “Evaluation of activation energy of thermally stimulated solid-state reactions under arbitrary variation of temperature,” Journal of Computational Chemistry, 18, pp. 393–402 (1997).
S. Vyazovkin, “Modification of the integral isoconversional method to account for variation in the activation energy,” Journal of Computational Chemistry, 22, pp. 178–183 (2001).
A. Matala, C. Lautenberger and S. Hostikka, “Generalized direct method for pyrolysis kinetic parameter estimation and comparison to existing methods”, Journal of Fire Sciences, 30(4), pp. 339–356 (2012).
R.E. Lyon and R.N. Walters, “Pyrolysis combustion flow calorimetry”, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 71, pp. 27–46 (2004).
T. Ohlemiller, “Modeling of smoldering combustion propagation”, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 11, 277–310 (1985).
A. Matala, “Estimation of Solid Phase Reaction Parameters for Fire Simulation”, Master’s thesis, Helsinki University of Technology, Finland (2008).
C. Lautenberger, “A Generalized Pyrolysis Model for Combustible Solids”, Users’ guide (2009).
S.I. Stoliarov, S. Crowley, R.E. Lyon, and G.T. Linteris, “Prediction of the burning rates of non-charring polymers”, Combustion and Flame, 156, pp. 1068–1083 (2009).
S.I. Stoliarov, N. Safronava, R.E. Lyon, “The effect of variation in polymer properties on the rate of burning,” Fire and Materials, 33, pp. 257–271 (2009).
C. Lautenberger, E. Kim, N. Dembsey, and C. Fernandez-Pello, “The Role of Decomposition Kinetics in Pyrolysis Modeling – Application to a Fire Retardant Polyester Composite”, Fire Safety Science, 9, pp. 1201–1212 (2008).
J.E.J. Staggs, “A theory for quasi-steady single-step thermal degradation of polymers”, Fire and Materials, 22, 1998, pp. 109–118 (1998).
J. Zhang, M.A. Delichatsios, and S. Bourbigot, “Experimental and numerical study of the effects of nanoparticles on pyrolysis of polyamide 6 (PA6) nanocomposite in the cone calorimeter”, Combustion and Flame, 156, pp. 2056–2062 (2009).
F. Jia, E.R. Galea, and M.K. Patel, “The numerical simulation of the non-charring pyrolysis process and fire development within a compartment”, Applied Mathematical Modelling, 23, pp. 587–607 (1999).
C. Lautenberger, Ph.D. Thesis, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA (2007) available at <http://repositories.cdlib.org/cpl/fs/>
C. Lautenberger, “Gpyro – A Generalized Pyrolysis Model for Combustible Solids” – Users’ Guide Version 0.700 (February 19, 2009).
GPyro, available at <http://code.google.com/p/gpyro/>
K.B. Mc Grattan, S. Hostikka, J.E. Floyd, H.R. Baum, and R.G. Rehm, “Fire Dynamics Simulator (Version 5). Technical Reference Guide”, Volume 1: Mathematical Model, NIST Special Publication 1018–5, Gaithersburg, MD, (October 2007).
FireFOAM Code, available at <http://code.google.com/p/firefoam-dev/>.
S.I. Stoliarov and R.E. Lyon, “Thermo-Kinetic Model of Burning”, Federal Aviation Administration Technical Note, DOT/FAA/AR-TN08/17 (2008), <www.fire.tc.faa.gov/reports/reports.asp>
S.I. Stoliarov and R.E. Lyon, “Thermo-kinetic model of burning for pyrolyzing materials”, in Proceedings of the Ninth International Symposium on Fire Safety Science, pp. 1141–1152 (2009).
L. Bustamante Valencia, Experimental and Numerical Investigation of the Thermal Decomposition of Materials at Three Scales: Application to Polyether Polyurethane Foam used in Upholstered Furniture, Ph.D. Thesis, ENSMA, Poitiers, France (2009).
C.R. Houck, J.A. Joines, and M.G. Kay, “GAOT: A Genetic Algorithm for Function Optimization: A Matlab Implementation”, Report NCSU-IE TR 95–09 (1995), available at <http://www.ise.ncsu.edu/kay/>
Q. Duan, V.K. Gupta and S. Sorooshian, “A shuffled complex evolution approach for effective and efficient global minimization,” Journal of Optimization Theory and Applications, 76, pp. 501–521 (1993).
Q. Duan, S. Sorooshian and V.K. Gupta, “Optimal Use of the SCEUA Global Optimization Method for Calibrating Watershed Models,” Journal of Hydrology, 158, pp. 265–284 (1994).
N. Bal, Uncertainty and complexity in pyrolysis modelling, PhD Thesis, University of Edinburgh, UK (2012), available at http://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/6511
S.I. Stoliarov and R.E. Lyon, “Thermo-Kinetic Model of Burning”, Federal Aviation Administration Technical Note DOT/FAA/AR-TN-08/17 (2008).
S.I. Stoliarov, S. Crowley, R.E. Lyon, and G.T. Linteris, “Prediction of the Burning Rates of Non-Charring Polymers”, Combustion and Flame, 156, pp. 1068–1083 (2009).
S.S. Rahatekar, M. Zammarano, S. Matko, K.K. Koziol, M.H. Windle, T. Kashiwagi, and J.W. Gilman, “Effect of Carbon Nanotubes and Montmorillonite on the Flammability of Epoxy Nanocomposites”, Polymer Degradation and Stability, 98, pp. 870–879 (2010).
P. Patel, T.R. Hull, A.A. Stec, and R. E. Lyon, “Influence of physical properties on polymer flammability in the cone calorimeter,” Polymers for Advanced Technologies, 22, pp. 1100–1107 (2011).
J.G. Quintiere, Principles of Fire Behaviour, Delmar, Albany, NY (1997).
D. Drysdale, An Introduction to Fire Dynamics, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester (1999).
T. Faravelli, G. Bozzano, M. Colombo, E. Ranzi, M. Dente, Kinetic modeling of the thermal degradation of polyethylene and polystyrene mixtures, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 70, 761–777, 2003.
Z. Gao, I. Amasaki, and M. Nakada, ”A thermogravimetric study on thermal degradation of polyethylene,” Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 67 (1), pp. 1–9 (2003).
A. Marcilla, A. Gomez, A.N. Garcia, and M.M. Olaya, “Kinetic study of the catalytic decomposition of different commercial polyethylenes over an MCM-41 catalyst”, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 64, pp. 85-101(2002).
C.F Cullis and M.M Hirschler, The combustion of organic polymers, New York, NY: Oxford University Press (1981).
S.L. Madorsky, "Thermal degradation of organic polymers”, Interscience Publishers, A Division of John Wiley & Sons Inc. (1964).
S.M. Thornberg, R. Bernstein, D.K. Derzon, A.N. Irwin, S.B. Klamo, and R.L. Clough, “The genesis of CO2 and CO in the thermooxidative degradation of polypropylene”, Polymer Degradation and Stability, 92, pp. 94–102 (2007).
R. Bernstein, S.M. Thornberg, R.A. Assink, A.N. Irwin, J.M. Hochrein, J.R. Brown, D.K. Derzon, S.B. Klamo, and R.L. Clough, “The origins of volatile oxidation products in the thermal degradation of polypropylene, identified by selective isotopic labelling,” Polymer Degradation and Stability, 92, pp. 2076–2094 (2007).
G.G. Cameron, W.A.J. Bryce, I.T. McWalter, “Thermal degradation of polystyrene-5. Effects of initiator residues,” European Polymer Journal, 20, pp. 563–569 (1984).
N. Grassie and G. Scott, Polymer Degradation and Stabilisation, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK (1985).
W.R. Zeng, S.F Li, and W.K. Chow, “PMMA Review on Chemical Reactions of Burning Poly(methylmethacrylate)”, Journal of Fire Sciences, 20, p. 401 (2002).
I.C. McNeill and A. Rincon, “Thermal degradation of polycarbonates: Reaction conditions and reaction mechanisms,” Polymer Degradation and Stability, 39, pp. 13–19 (1993).
. A. Davis and J.H. Golden, J. Macromol. Scie. Rev. Macromol. Chem. C, 3, p. 49 (1969).
S.C. Moldoveanu, “Analytical Pyrolysis of Synthetic Organic Polymers”, Techniques and Instrumentation in Analytical Chemistry, Volume 25, 1st Edition, Elsevier (2005).
S. Smith, “The re-equilibration of polycaproamide,” Journal of Polymer Science, 30, pp. 459–478 (1958).
L.H. Buxbaum, “The degradation of poly(ethylene terephthalate),” Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 7, pp. 182–190 (1968).
S.V. Levchik and E.D. Weil, “A review on thermal decomposition and combustion of thermoplastic polyesters”, Polymers for Advanced Technologies, 15, pp. 691–700 (2004).
T.R. Hull, A.A. Stec, and S. Nazare, “TGA-FTIR Investigation of The Fire Retardant Mechanism of Acrylonitrile Copolymers Containing Nanofillers,” in 235th American Chemical Society National Meeting, APR 06–10, New Orleans, LA (2008).
Z. Bashir, “A critical review of the stabilisation of polyacrylonitrile,” Carbon, 29, pp. 1081–1090 (1991).
A.R. Horrocks, J. Zhang and M.E. Hall, “Flammability of polyacrylonitrile and its copolymers II. Thermal behaviour and mechanism of degradation,” Polymer International, 33, pp. 303–314 (1994).
N. Grassie, Developments in polymer degradation, Applied Science, Vol. 1, p. 137, London (1977).
E. Fitzer and D. Muller, “The influence of oxygen on the chemical reactions during stabilization of PAN as carbon fiber precursor,” Carbon, 13, p. 63–69 (1975).
L.T. Memetea, N.C. Billingham, and E.T.H. Then, “Hydroperoxides in polyacrylonitrile and their role in carbon-fibre formation,” Polymer Degradation and Stability, 47, pp. 189–201 (1995).
N. Grassie, J.N. Hay and I.C. McNeill, “Coloration in acrylonitrile and methacrylonitrile polymers,” Journal of Polymer Science, 31, p. 205 (1958).
J. Brandrup and L.H. Peebles, “On the chromophore of polyacrylonitrile. IV. Thermal oxidation of polyacrylonitrile and other nitrile-containing compounds”, Macromolecules, 1, 64–72, (1968).
M.A. Geiderikh, B.E. Davydov, B.A. Krentsel, I.M. Kustanovich, L.S. Polak, A.V. Topchiev, and R.M. Voitenko, “Preparation of polymeric materials with semiconductor properties,” Journal of Polymer Science, 54, pp. 621–626 (1961).
S.C. Martin, J.J. Liggat and C.E. Snape, “In situ NMR investigation into the thermal degradation and stabilisation of PAN,” Polymer Degradation and Stability, 74, pp. 407–412 (2001).
W.D. Woolley, “Decomposition Products of PVC for Studies of Fires”, British Polymer Journal, 3(4), pp. 186–193 (1971).
. W.D. Wolley, “Studies of the dehydrochlorination of PVC in nitrogen and air”, Building Research Establishment, Current Paper CP 9/74 (1974).
Purser, D.A., Fardell, P.J., Rowley, J., Vollam, S. and Bridgeman, B. An improved tube furnace method for the generation and measurement of toxic combustion products under a wide range of fire conditions. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference Flame Retardants ‘94, London, UK (26–27 Jan 1994). Interscience Communications.
K.T. Paul, “Feasibility Study to Demonstrate the Potential of Smoke Hoods in Simulated Aircraft Fire Atmospheres: Development of the fire model”, Fire and Materials, 14, pp. 43–58, (1989).
K. Lebek, T.R. Hull, and D. Price, “Products of burning rigid PVC burning under different fire conditions Fire and Polymers”, Materials and Concepts for Hazard Prevention, ACS Symposium Series No. 922, Oxford University Press, p. 334–347 (2005).
T.R. Hull, A.A. Stec, and K.T. Paul, Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on Fire Safety Science, 665–676 (2008).
H.F. Mark, N. Bikales, C.G. Overberger, and J.I. Kroschwitz, eds., Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Engineering, Wiley Europe, vol 1–4 (1989).
E.E. Lewis and M.A. Naylor, “Pyrolysis of Polytetrafluoroethylene”. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 69, p. 1968–70 (1947).
A. Stec and R. Hull, Fire Toxicity, Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, 2010.
E. Ackerman, Firestopping Through-Penetrations, in Science and Technology of Building Seals, Sealants, Glazing, and Waterproofing: Seventh Volume (J.M. Klosowski, ed.), ASTM STP 1334, American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA (1998).
J. Harris, A. Stevenson, “On the role of nonlinearity in the dynamic behavior of rubber components”, Rubber Chemistry and Technology, 59 (5), pp. 740-764 (2011).
D.J. Kind and T.R. Hull, “A review of candidate fire retardants for polyisoprene,” Polymer Degradation and Stability, 97, pp. 201–213 (2012).
D.W. Brazier and G.H. Nickel, “Thermoanalytical methods in vulcanizate analysis. Derivative thermogravimetric analysis”, Rubber Chemistry and Technology, 48 (4), pp. 661–677 (1975).
A.K. Sircar, “Identification of natural and synthetic polyisoprene vulcanizates by thermal analysis”, Rubber Chemistry and Technology., 50 (1), pp. 71–82 (1977).
S. Straus and S.L. Madorsky, “Thermal Degradation of Unvulcanized and Vulcanized Rubber in a Vacuum”, Industrial and engineering chemistry, 48 (7), pp. 1212–1219 (1956).
F. Cataldo, “Thermal depolymerization and pyrolysis of cis-1,4-polyisoprene: preparation of liquid polyisoprene and terpene resin”, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 44(2), pp. 121–130 (1998).
S.V. Levchik and E.D. Weil, “Thermal decomposition, combustion and flame-retardancy of epoxy resins: a review of the recent literature,” Polymer International, 53, pp. 1901–1929 (2004).
S.C. Lin, B.J. Bulkin and E.M. Pearce, “Thermal Degradation Study Of Phenolphthalein Polycarbonate”, Journal of polymer science, Part A-1, Polymer chemistry, 19, 2773–2797, (1981).
B.C. Levin, M. Paabo, J.L. Gurman and S.E. Harris, “Effects of exposure to single or multiple combinations of the predominant toxic gases and low oxygen atmospheres produced in fires” Toxicological Sciences, 9, 236–250 (1987).
D.A. Purser, Asphyxiant components of the fire effluents, in Fire Toxicity, (A.A Stec and T.R. Hull, eds.), Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge (2010).
J. Wang, H. Jiang and N. Jiang, Study on the pyrolysis of phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resin and modified PF resin. Thermochimica Acta, 2009, 496, 136–142
A. Murari and A. Barzon, “Comparison of New PEEK Seals with Traditional Helicoflex for Ultra High Vacuum Applications”, Vacuum, Volume 72, Issue 3, pp. 327–334 (2003).
S.K. Yesodha, C.K.S. Pillai, and N. Tsutsuni, “Stable Polymeric Materials for Non-Linear Optics: A Review Based on Azobenzene Systems”, Progress in Polymer Science, Volume 29, Issue 1, pp. 45–74 (2004).
M.P. Stevens, Polymer Chemistry: An Introduction, Third Edition. Oxford University Press, New York, USA (1999).
M.C. Kuo, C.M. Tsai, J.C. Huang, and M. Chen, “PEEK Composites Reinforced by Nano-Sized SiO2 and Al2O3 Particulates”, Materials Chemistry and Physics, Volume 90, pp. 185–195 (2005).
L.H. Perng, C.J. Tsai, and Y.C. Ling, “Mechanism and Kinetic Modelling of PEEK Pyrolysis by TG/MS”, Polymer, Volume 40, pp. 731–732 (1999).
P. Patel, T. R. Hull, R. W. McCabe, D. Flath, J. Grasmeder, and M. Percy, Mechanism of thermal decomposition of poly(ether ether ketone) (PEEK) from a review of decomposition studies, Polymer Degradation and Stability, 95, pp. 709–718 (2010).
A.-M.M. Baker and J. Mead, Thermoplastics, Chapter 1, In C.A. Harper, Modern Plastics Handbook, McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing, Ohio, USA (2000).
R.E. Lyon and M.L. Janssens, Polymer Flammability, US Department of Transport, Report Number: DOT/FAA/AR-05/14 (2005).
F. D. Kopinke, M. Remmler, K. Mackenzie, Thermal decomposition of biodegradable polyesters-I: Poly(hydroxybutyric acid). Polym. Degrad. Stab., 52, 25–38, 1996.
H. Morikawa, R.H. Marchessault, Pyrolysis of bacterial polyalkanoates, Canadian Journal of Chemistry 59, 2306,1981
J.L. Gay-Lussac, Ann. Chim. Phys., 18, p. 211 (1821).
SRI Consulting, Report on Flame Retardants, Published December 2008
T.R. Hull, A. Witkowski, L.A. Hollingbery, “Fire retardant action of mineral fillers”, Polymer Degradation and Stability, 96, pp. 1462–1469 (2011).
A. Bergman, A. Ryden, R.J. Law, J. de Boer, A. Covaci, M. Alaee, L. Birnbaum, M. Petreas, M. Rose, S. Sakai, N. Van den Eede and I. van der Veen, “A novel abbreviation standard for organobromine, organochlorine and organophosphorus flame retardants and some characteristics of the chemicals” Environment International, 49, 57–82, (2012).
A. Schnipper, L. Smith-Hansen, and S.E. Thomsen, “Reduced Combustion Efficiency of Chlorinated Compounds Resulting In Higher Yields of Carbon Monoxide”, Fire and Materials, 19, pp. 61–64, (1995).
V. Babushok, W. Tsang, G.T. Linteris, and D. Reinelt, “Chemical Limits to Flame Inhibition”, Combustion and Flame, 115, pp. 551–560 (1998).
M.I. Nelson and J. Brindley, “Polymer combustion: Effects of flame emissivity” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 358, 3655–3673 (2000).
J.G. Quintiere, Principles of Fire Behaviour, Delmar Publishers, New York, USA, (1997).
. H. Zhang, Fire-Safe Polymers and Polymer Composites, US Department of Transport. Report Number: DOT/FAA/AR-04/11 (2004).
P. Patel, T.R Hull, and Colin Moffatt, “PEEK polymer flammability and the inadequacy of the UL‐94 classification,” Fire and Materials, 36, pp. 185–201 (2012).
V. Babrauskas, “Fire Test Methods for Evaluation of Fire-Retardant Efficacy in Polymeric Materials”, Chapter 3, in Fire Retardancy of Polymeric Materials (A.F. Grand and C.A. Wilkie, eds.), CRC Press, New York, USA (2000).
K.T. Paul and S.D. Christian, “Standard flaming ignition sources for upholstered composites, furniture and bed assembly,” Journal of Fire Sciences, 5(3), pp. 178–211 (1987).
D. Hopkins Jr and J.G. Quintiere, “Materials fire properties and predictions for thermoplastics”, Fire Safety Journal, 26, pp. 241–268 (1996).
D.J. Rasbash, D.D. Drysdale, and D. Deepak, “Critical heat and mass transfer at pilot ignition and extinction of a material”, Fire Safety Journal, 10, pp. 1–10 (1986).
H.E. Thomson, D.D. Drysdale, and C.L. Beyler, “An experimental evaluation of critical surface temperatures as a criterion for piloted ignition of solid fuels”, Fire Safety Journal, 13, pp. 185–196 (1988).
E. Mikkola and I.S. Wichman, “On the thermal ignition of combustible materials”, Fire and Materials, 14, pp. 87–96 (1989).
T. Kashiwagi, “Radiative ignition mechanism of solid fuels”, Fire Safety Journal, 3, pp. 185–200 (1981).
V. Babrauskas, Ignition Handbook, Fire Science Publishers, Issaquah WA, USA and SFPE, USA (2003).
R.E. Lyon, “Plastics and Rubber”, in Handbook of Building Materials for Fire Protection, (C.A. Harper, ed), McGraw-Hill, chap 3, 3.1-3.51 (2004).
R.E. Lyon, R.N. Walters, and S.I. Stoliarov, “Thermal Analysis of Polymer Flammability”, Presented at 228th ACS Meeting Philadelphia (2004).
A. Tewarson, “Generation of Heat and Chemical Compounds in Fires”, in The SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, 3rd edition (P.J. DiNenno, D.D. Drysdale, C.L. Beyler, W.D. Walton, R.L.P Custer, J.R. Hall Jr and J.M. Watts Jr, eds), National Fire Protection Association, Inc., chap 3.4,3-82-3-161 (2002).
M. Sibulkin and M.W. Little, “Propagation and extinction of downward burning fires”, Combustion Flame, 31, pp. 197–208 (1978).
IEC 60695-11-10 “Fire hazard testing - Part 11–10: Test flames - 50 W horizontal and vertical flame test methods,” (1999).
V. Babrauskas, “Ignition: A Century of Research and an Assessment of our Current Status”, Journal of Fire Protection Engineering, 17(3), pp. 165–183 (2007).
ISO 5660–1 “Fire tests – Reaction to fire – Part 1: Rate of heat release from building products (cone calorimeter method)”, (1993).
A.B. Morgan and M. Bundy, “Cone Calorimeter Analysis of UL-94 V-Rated Plastics”, Fire and Materials, 31, pp. 257–283 (2007).
Y. Wang, F. Zhang, X. Chen, Y. Jin, and J. Zhang, “Burning and Dripping Behaviours of Polymers under the UL-94 Vertical Burn Test Conditions”, Fire and Materials, 34, pp. 203–215 (2009).
M. Bundy and T. Ohlemiller, “Bench-Scale Flammability Measures for Electronic Equipment”, National Institute of Standards and Technology, NISTIR 7031 (2003).
S. Hong, J. Yang, S. Ahn, Y. Mun, and G. Lee, “Flame Retardant Performance of Various UL-94 Classified Materials Exposed to External Ignition Sources”, Fire and Materials, 28, pp. 25–31 (2004).
B. Schartel and U. Braun, “Comprehensive Fire Behaviour Assessment of Polymeric Materials Based on Cone Calorimeter Investigations”, e-Polymers, Article 13, pp. 1–14 (2003).
B. Schartel and T.R. Hull, “Application of Cone Calorimetry to the Development of Materials with Improved Fire Performance”, Fire and Materials, 31, pp. 327–354 (2007).
J.G. Quintiere, B.P. Downey, and R.E. Lyon, “An Investigation of the Vertical Bunsen Burner Test for Flammability of Plastics”, US Department of Transport, Report Number: DOT/FAA/AR-TN (2010).
ISO 4589–2 “Plastics – Determination of burning behaviour by oxygen index – Part-2: Ambient temperature test”, (1996).
ISO 5660–2 “Reaction-to-fire tests – Heat release, smoke production and mass loss rate – Part 2: Smoke production rate (dynamic measurement)”, (2002).
B. Schartel and T.R. Hull, “Application of cone calorimetry to the development of materials with improved fire performance”, Fire and Materials, 31, pp. 327–354 (2007).
R.E. Lyon, in Recent Advances in Flame Retardancy of Polymers, vol. 13, (M. Lewin, ed.), BCC, Inc., pp. 14-25 (2002)
R.E. Lyon and R.N. Walters, “Pyrolysis combustion flow calorimetry”, Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 71, pp. 27–46 (2004).
B. Schartel, K.H. Pawlowski, and R.E. Lyon, “Pyrolysis combustion flow calorimeter: A tool to assess flame retarded PC/ABS materials?”, Thermochimica Acta, 462, pp. 1–14 (2007).
R.E. Lyon, R.N. Walters, M. Beach, and F.P. Schall, “Flammability Screening of Plastics Containing Flame Retardant Additives”, ADDITIVES 2007, 16th International Conference, San Antonio, TX (2007).
D.W. Van Krevelen, Properties of Polymers. Chapter 21 – Thermal Decomposition, 4th Edition, Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam (2009).
R. Walters and R.E. Lyon, Calculating Polymer Flammability from Molar Group Contributions, DOT/FAA/AR-01/31 (2001).
P. Patel, Doctoral Thesis, University of Central Lancashire, UK (2011).
H. Zhang, Fire-Safe Polymers, and Polymer Composites, US Department Of Transport, Report Number: DOT/FAA/AR-04/11, Federal Aviation Administration (2004).
R.E. Lyon and M.L. Janssens, Polymer Flammability, US Department of Transport, Report Number: DOT/FAA/AR-05/14 (2005).
P. Patel, T.R. Hull, R.E. Lyon, S.I. Stoliarov, R.N. Walters, S. Crowley, and N. Safronava, “Investigation of the Thermal Decomposition and Flammability of PEEK and its Carbon and Glass-Fibre Composites”, Polymer Degradation and Stability, In Press (2011).
R.E. Lyon, “Solid-State Thermochemistry of Flaming Combustion,” in Fire Retardancy of Polymeric Materials (C.A. Wilkie and A.F Grand, eds.), Marcel Dekker, Inc., NY (2000).
R.E. Lyon, “Heat Release Capacity,” Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Fire and Materials, San Francisco, CA, pp. 285–300 (2001).
R.E. Lyon, “Heat Release Kinetics,” Fire and Materials, 24, pp. 179–186 (2000).
R.N. Walters and R.E. Lyon, “A Microscale Combustion Calorimeter for Determining Flammability Parameters of Materials,” Proceedings 42nd International SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition, 42(2), pp. 1335–1344 (1997).
R.N. Walters and R.E. Lyon, “A Microscale Combustion Calorimeter for Determining Flammability Parameters of Materials,” NISTIR 5904 (K. Beall, ed.), pp. 89–90 (1996).
R.E. Lyon and R.N. Walters, U.S. Patent 5981290, Microscale Combustion Calorimeter, 11/09/1999.
R.N. Walters and R.E. Lyon, “Molar Group Contributions to Polymer Flammability,” PMSE Preprints, 83, 86, ACS National Meeting, Washington, D.C. (August 2000).
R.N. Walters and R.E. Lyon, “Calculating Polymer Flammability from Molar Group Contributions,” Proceedings of the BCC Conference on Flame Retardancy of Polymeric Materials, Stamford, CT (May 22–24, 2000).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Society of Fire Protection Engineers
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Witkowski, A., Stec, A.A., Hull, T.R. (2016). Thermal Decomposition of Polymeric Materials. In: Hurley, M.J., et al. SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2565-0_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2565-0_7
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-2564-3
Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-2565-0
eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)