Skip to main content

Topical and Transdermal

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Book cover Pediatric Formulations

Part of the book series: AAPS Advances in the Pharmaceutical Sciences Series ((AAPS,volume 11))

  • 3637 Accesses

Abstract

Formulations designed to be applied to the skin, in particular for the treatment of skin diseases are commonly used for children. There are a number of important issues with regards to the use of these types medicines in the pediatric population in comparison to adults; for example children have a greater risk of experiencing systemic side effects as a result of treatment. This chapter discusses the roles of the different formulations used for topical and transdermal treatment, their design and considerations specifically relevant for the development of these medicines for children.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Bechelli LM, Haddad N, Pimenta WP, Pagnano PMG, Melchior E, Fregnan RC, Zanin LC, Arenas A (1981) Epidemiological survey of skin diseases in school-children living in the Purus valley (Acre state, Amazonia, Brazil). Dermatologica 163(1):78–93

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Dogra S, Kumar B (2003) Epidemiology of skin diseases in school children: a study from northern India. Pediatr Dermatol 20(6):470–473

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Fergusson DM, Dimond ME, Shannon FT (1984) Morbidity during the preschool years. Aust Paediatr J 20(4):281–287

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Kottenhahn RK, Heck JE (1994) Prevalence of pediatric skin diseases in rural Honduras. Trop Doct 24(2):87–88

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Mahe A, Prual A, Konate M, Bobin P (1995) Skin diseases of children in Mali – a public-health problem. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 89(5):467–470

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Popescu R, Popescu CM, Williams HC, Forsea D (1999) The prevalence of skin conditions in Romanian school children. Br J Dermatol 140(5):891–896

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Ghodsi SZ, Orawa H, Zouboulis CC (2009) Prevalence, severity, and severity risk factors of acne in high school pupils: a community-based study. J Invest Dermatol 129(9):2136–2141

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Foley P, Zuo YQ, Plunkett A, Marks R (2001) The frequency of common skin conditions in preschool-age children in Australia – atopic dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 137(3):293–300

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Mar A, Marks R (1999) The descriptive epidemiology of atopic dermatitis in the community. Australas J Dermatol 40(2):73–78

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Peat JK, Vandenberg RH, Green WF, Mellis CM, Leeder SR, Woolcock AJ (1994) Changing prevalence of asthma in Australian children. Br Med J 308(6944):1591–1596

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Schultz Larsen F (1993) The epidemiology of atopic dermatitis. In: Burr ML (ed) Epidemiology of clinical allergy. Monographs in allergy. S. Karger AG, Basel, 9–28

    Google Scholar 

  12. Walker RB, Warin RP (1956) The incidence of eczema in early childhood. Br J Dermatol 68(5):182–183

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Williams HC (1992) Is the prevalence of atopic-dermatitis increasing. Clin Exp Dermatol 17(6):385–391

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Kay J, Gawkrodger DJ, Mortimer MJ, Jaron AG (1994) The prevalence of childhood atopic eczema in a general-population. J Am Acad Dermatol 30(1):35–39

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Correale CE, Walker C, Murphy L, Craig TJ (1999) Atopic dermatitis: a review of diagnosis and treatment. Am Fam Physician 60(4):1191–1198

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Ozkaya E (2005) Adult-onset atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 52(4):579–582

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Williams HC, Strachan DP (1998) The natural history of childhood eczema: observations from the British 1958 birth cohort study. Br J Dermatol 139(5):834–839

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Lello J, Pearl A, Arroll B, Yallop J, Birchall NM (1995) Prevalence of acne-vulgaris in Auckland senior high-school-students. N Z Med J 108(1004):287–289

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Lucky AW, Biro FM, Huster GA, Morrison JA, Elder N (1991) Acne-vulgaris in early adolescent boys – correlations with pubertal maturation and age. Arch Dermatol 127(2):210–216

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Rademaker M, Garioch JJ, Simpson NB (1989) Acne in schoolchildren no longer a concern for dermatologists. Br Med J 298(6682):1218–1219

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Goulden V, Stables GI, Cunliffe WJ (1999) Prevalence of facial acne in adults. J Am Acad Dermatol 41(4):577–580

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Jordan WE, Lawson KD, Berg RW, Franxman JJ, Marrer AM (1986) Diaper dermatitis: frequency and severity among a general infant population. Pediatr Dermatol 3(3):198–207

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Philipp R, Hughes A, Golding J (1997) Getting to the bottom of nappy rash. Br J Gen Pract 47(421):493–497

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Virgili A, Corazza M, Califano A (1998) Diaper dermatitis in an adult – a case of erythema papuloerosive of Sevestre and Jacquet. J Reprod Med 43(11):949–951

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Fantl J, Newman D, Colling J et al (1996) Urinary incontinence in adults: acute and chronic management: clinical practice guideline number 2, 1996 update (Report No. 96-0682). Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (AHCPR), Rockville

    Google Scholar 

  26. Ward DB, Fleischer AB, Feldman SR, Krowchuk DP (2000) Characterization of diaper dermatitis in the United States. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 154(9):943–946

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Fan X, Xiao FL, Yang S, Liu JB, Yan KL, Liang YH, Sun LD, Du WH, Jin YT, Zhang XJ (2007) Childhood psoriasis: a study of 277 patients from China. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 21(6):762–765

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Kumar B, Jain R, Sandhu K, Kaur I, Handa S (2004) Epidemiology of childhood psoriasis: a study of 419 patients from northern India. Int J Dermatol 43(9):654–658

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Nanda A, Kaur S, Kaur I, Kumar B (1990) Childhood psoriasis – an epidemiologic survey of 112 patients. Pediatr Dermatol 7(1):19–21

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Seyhan M, Coskun BK, Saglam H, Ozcan H, Karincaoglu Y (2006) Psoriasis in childhood and adolescence: evaluation of demographic and clinical features. Pediatr Int 48(6):525–530

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Gelfand JM, Weinstein R, Porter SB, Neimann AL, Berlin JA, Margolis D (2005) Prevalence and treatment of psoriasis in the United Kingdom – a population-based study. Arch Dermatol 141(12):1537–1541

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Augustin M, Glaeske G, Radtke MA, Christophers E, Reich K, Schaefer I (2010) Epidemiology and comorbidity of psoriasis in children. Br J Dermatol 162(3):633–636

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Barisic-Drusko V, Paljan D, Kansky A, Vujasinovic S (1989) Prevalence of psoriasis in Croatia. Acta Derm Venereol Suppl 146:178–179

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Braathen LR, Botten G, Bjerkedal T (1989) Psoriatics in Norway – a questionnaire study on health-status, contact with paramedical professions, and alcohol and tobacco consumption. Acta Derm Venereol Suppl (Stockh) 142:9–12

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Brandrup F, Green A (1981) The prevalence of psoriasis in Denmark. Acta Derm Venereol 61(4):344–346

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Falk ES, Vandbakk O (1993) Prevalence of psoriasis in a Norwegian Lapp population. Acta Derm Venereol Suppl (Stockh) 182:6–9

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Gelfand JM, Stern RS, Nijsten T, Feldman SR, Thomas J, Kist J, Rolstad T, Margolis DJ (2005) The prevalence of psoriasis in African Americans: results from a population-based study. J Am Acad Dermatol 52(1):23–26

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Kavli G, Forde OH, Arnesen E, Stenvold SE (1985) Psoriasis – familial predisposition and environmental-factors. Br Med J 291(6501):999–1000

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Kavli G, Stenvold SE, Vandbakk O (1985) Low prevalence of psoriasis in Norwegian Lapps. Acta Derm Venereol 65(3):262–263

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Koo J (1996) Population-based epidemiologic study of psoriasis with emphasis on quality of life assessment. Dermatol Clin 14(3):485–496

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Lindegard B (1986) Diseases associated with psoriasis in a general-population of 159,200 middle-aged, urban, native Swedes. Dermatologica 172(6):298–304

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Lomholt G (1964) Prevalence of skin diseases in a population; a census study from the Faroe Islands. Dan Med Bull 11:1–7

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Naldi L, Colombo P, Placchesi EB, Piccitto R, Chatenoud L, La Vecchia C (2004) Study design and preliminary results from the pilot phase of the PraKtis study: self-reported diagnoses of selected skin diseases in a representative sample of the Italian population. Dermatology 208(1):38–42

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Nevitt GJ, Hutchinson PE (1996) Psoriasis in the community: prevalence, severity and patients’ beliefs and attitudes towards the disease. Br J Dermatol 135(4):533–537

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Quirk CJ (1979) Skin-disease in the Busselton population survey. Med J Aust 1(12):569–570

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Rea JN, Newhouse ML, Halil T (1976) Skin-disease in Lambeth – community study of prevalence and use of medical-care. Br J Prev Soc Med 30(2):107–114

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Stern RS, Nijsten T, Feldman SR, Margolis DJ, Rolstad T (2004) Psoriasis is common, carries a substantial burden even when not extensive, and is associated with widespread treatment dissatisfaction. J Investig Dermatol Symp Proc 9(2):136–139

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Yip SY (1984) The prevalence of psoriasis in the mongoloid race. J Am Acad Dermatol 10(6):965–968

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Williams H (1998) Epidemiology of skin diseases. In: Champion R, Burton J, Burns D, Breathnach S (eds) Textbook of dermatology. Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp 139–158

    Google Scholar 

  50. Beasley R, Keil U, von Mutius E, Pearce N, Ait-Khaled N, Anabwani G, Anderson HR, Asher MI, Bjorkstein B, Burr ML, Clayton TO, Crane J, Ellwood P, Lai CKW, Mallol J, Martinez FD, Mitchell EA, Montefort S, Robertson CF, Shah JR, Sibbald B, Stewart AW, Strachan DP, Weiland SK, Williams HC (1998) Worldwide variation in prevalence of symptoms of asthma, allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, and atopic eczema: Isaac. Lancet 351(9111):1225–1232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  51. Laughter D, Istvan JA, Tofte SJ, Hanifin JM (2000) The prevalence of atopic dermatitis in Oregon schoolchildren. J Am Acad Dermatol 43(4):649–655

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Wiedersberg S, Naik A, Leopold CS, Guy RH (2009) Pharmacodynamics and dermatopharmacokinetics of betamethasone 17-valerate: assessment of topical bioavailability. Br J Dermatol 160(3):676–686

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Brown MB, Traynor MJ, Martin GP, Akomeah FK (2008) Transdermal drug delivery systems: skin perturbation devices. In: Jain K (ed) Methods in molecular biology. Humana Press, New Jersey

    Google Scholar 

  54. O’Regan GM, Sandilands A, McLean WHI, Irvine AD (2009) Filaggrin in atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 124(3):R2–R6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Janssens M, van Smeden J, Gooris GS, Bras W, Portale G, Caspers PJ, Vreeken RJ, Hankemeier T, Kezic S, Wolterbeek R, Lavrijsen AP, Bouwstra JA (2012) Increase in short-chain ceramides correlates with an altered lipid organization and decreased barrier function in atopic eczema patients. J Lipid Res 53(12):2755–2766

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Hardman M, Byrne C (2006) Skin structural development. In: Elias P, Feingold K (eds) Skin barrier. Taylor & Francis, New York

    Google Scholar 

  57. Kalia YN, Nonato LB, Lund CH, Guy RH (1998) Development of skin barrier function in premature infants. J Invest Dermatol 111(2):320–326

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Cartwright RG, Cartlidge PHT, Rutter N, Melia CD, Davis SS (1990) Transdermal delivery of theophylline to premature-infants using a hydrogel disk system. Br J Clin Pharmacol 29(5):533–539

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Coureau B, Bussieres J-F, Tremblay S (2008) Cushing’s syndrome induced by misuse of moderate- to high-potency topical corticosteroids. Ann Pharmacother 42(12):1903–1907

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Singal A, Thami GP (2006) Lindane neurotoxicity in childhood. Am J Ther 13(3):277–280

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Zhai HB, Meier-Davis SR, Cayme B, Shudo J, Maibach H (2012) Irritant contact dermatitis: effect of age. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 31(2):138–143

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Wester R, Maibach H (2005) Regional variation in percutaneous absorption: principles and applications to human risk assessment. In: Bronaugh RL, Maibach HI (eds) Percutaneous absorption drugs – cosmetics – mechanisms – methodology, 4th edn. Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, pp 85–93

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  63. Ogiso T, Shiraki T, Okajima K, Tanino T, Iwaki M, Wada T (2002) Transfollicular drug delivery: penetration of drugs through human scalp skin and comparison of penetration between scalp and abdominal skins in vitro. J Drug Target 10(5):369–378

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Ortiz PG, Hansen SH, Shah VP, Menne T, Benfeldt E (2009) Impact of adult atopic dermatitis on topical drug penetration: assessment by cutaneous microdialysis and tape stripping. Acta Derm Venereol 89(1):33–38

    Google Scholar 

  65. Ozon A, Cetinkaya S, Alikasifoglu A, Gonc EN, Sen Y, Kandemir N (2007) Inappropriate use of potent topical glucocorticoids in infants. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 20(2):219–225

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Gould AR, Sharp PJ, Smith DR, Stegink AJ, Chase CJ, Kovacs JC, Penglis S, Chatterton BE, Bunn CL (2003) Increased permeability of psoriatic skin to the protein, plasminogen activator inhibitor 2. Arch Dermatol Res 295(6):249–254

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Singh P, Roberts MS (1994) Skin permeability and local tissue concentrations of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs after topical application. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 268(1):144–151

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Magnusson BM, Pugh WJ, Roberts MS (2004) Simple rules defining the potential of compounds for transdermal delivery or toxicity. Pharm Res 21(6):1047–1054

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Reid ML, Jones SA, Brown MB (2009) Transient drug supersaturation kinetics of beclomethasone dipropionate in rapidly drying films. Int J Pharm 371(1–2):114–119

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Stoughton RB, Wullich K (1989) The same glucocorticoid in brand-name products – does increasing the concentration result in greater topical biologic activity. Arch Dermatol 125(11):1509–1511

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. British National Formulary 65 (2013) British Medical Association and the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain, London

    Google Scholar 

  72. Trottet L, Owen H, Holme P, Heylings J, Collin IP, Breen AP, Siyad MN, Nandra RS, Davis AF (2005) Are all aciclovir cream formulations bioequivalent? Int J Pharm 304(1–2):63–71

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Alberti I, Kalia YN, Naik A, Bonny JD, Guy RH (2001) Effect of ethanol and isopropyl myristate on the availability of topical terbinafine in human stratum corneum, in vivo. Int J Pharm 219(1–2):11–19

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Williams AC, Barry BW (2004) Penetration enhancers. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 56(5):603–618

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Lee PJ, Ahmad N, Langer R, Mitragotri S, Shastri VP (2006) Evaluation of chemical enhancers in the transdermal delivery of lidocaine. Int J Pharm 308(1–2):33–39

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Sato K, Sugibayashi K, Morimoto Y (1988) Effect and mode of action of aliphatic esters on the in vitro skin permeation of nicorandil. Int J Pharm 43(1–2):31–40

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Hollingsbee DA, Fairbrother JE, Martin GP, Marriott C, Monger L (1991) The effect of a hydrocolloid dermatological patch (actiderm) in potentiating the skin blanching activity of triamcinolone acetonide. Int J Pharm 77(2–3):199–209

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Pershing LK, Silver BS, Krueger GG, Shah VP, Skelley JP (1992) Feasibility of measuring the bioavailability of topical betamethasone dipropionate in commercial formulations using drug content in skin and a skin blanching bioassay. Pharm Res 9(1):45–51

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Curdy C, Naik A, Kalia YN, Alberti I, Guy RH (2004) Non-invasive assessment of the effect of formulation excipients on stratum corneum barrier function in vivo. Int J Pharm 271(1–2):251–256

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. National Psoriasis Foundation (2009) Topical treatments for psoriasis, including steroids. http://www.psoriasis.org/document.doc?id=164

  81. Gupta G, Mallefet P, Kress DW, Sergeant A (2009) Adherence to topical dermatological therapy: lessons from oral drug treatment. Br J Dermatol 161(2):221–227

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Ellis RM, Koch LH, McGuire E, Williams JV (2011) Potential barriers to adherence in pediatric dermatology. Pediatr Dermatol 28(3):242–244

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Arzhavitina A, Steckel H (2010) Foams for pharmaceutical and cosmetic application. Int J Pharm 394(1–2):1–17

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Andreassi L, Giannetti A, Milani M (2003) Efficacy of betamethasone valerate mousse in comparison with standard therapies on scalp psoriasis: an open, multicentre, randomized, controlled, cross-over study on 241 patients. Br J Dermatol 148(1):134–138

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Lloyd A, Hodgkins P, Dewilde S, Sasane R, Falconer S, Barke ES (2011) Methylphenidate delivery mechanisms for the treatment of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: heterogeneity in parent preferences. Int J Technol Assess Health Care 27(3):215–223

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Zernikow B, Michel E, Anderson B (2007) Transdermal fentanyl in childhood and adolescence: a comprehensive literature review. J Pain 8(3):187–207

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Teske J, Weller J-P, Larsch K, Troeger HD, Karst M (2007) Fatal outcome in a child after ingestion of a transdermal fentanyl patch. Int J Leg Med 121(2):147–151

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. Wokovich AM, Shen M, Doub WH, Machado SG, Buhse LF (2011) Evaluating elevated release liner adhesion of a transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS): a study of Daytrana methylphenidate transdermal system. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 37(10):1217–1224

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Effendy I, Maibach HI (1996) Detergent and skin irritation. Clin Dermatol 14(1):15–21

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Cork M, Timmins J, Holden C, Carr J, Berry V, Tazi-Ahnini R, Ward S (2003) An audit of adverse drug reactions to aqueous cream in children with atopic eczema. Pharm J 271:747–748

    Google Scholar 

  91. Tsang M, Guy RH (2010) Effect of aqueous cream BP on human stratum corneum in vivo. Br J Dermatol 163(5):954–958

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to William J. McAuley .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 American Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

McAuley, W.J., Traynor, M., Brown, M.B. (2014). Topical and Transdermal. In: Bar-Shalom, D., Rose, K. (eds) Pediatric Formulations. AAPS Advances in the Pharmaceutical Sciences Series, vol 11. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-8011-3_16

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics