Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

International Handbook of Human Response to Trauma pp 265–283Cite as

Cortisol Alterations in PTSD

  • Chapter

Part of the book series: Springer Series on Stress and Coping ((SSSO))

Abstract

When post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) became a diagnosis in 1980, many psychiatrists felt that this disorder was redundant with current biopsychosocial formulations of mental illness. Given the acknowledged importance of stress in precipitating the development of any psychiatric disorder—but primarily of mood and anxiety disorders (Bidzinska, 1984; Ghaziuddin et al., 1990; McFarlane, 1990; Pitman et al., 1987; Post et al., 1986; Swann et aI., 1990) - many felt that there was little to gain by having a discrete psychiatric disorder that specifically focused on targeting the effects of traumatic stressors. This feeling was further bolstered by the similarities between the proposed symptoms of PTSD and those seen in other mood and anxiety disorders (Friedman & Yehuda, 1995). Thus, many mental health practitioners in the early 1980s felt that the formulation of PTSD did not particularly add much to the psychiatric nosology in describing a novel syndrome.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   139.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • APA Task Force on Laboratory Tests in Psychiatry. (1987). The dexamethasone suppression test: An overview of its current status in psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1253–1262.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arato, M., Banki, C. M., Bissette, G., & Nemeroff, C. B. (1989). Elevated CSF CRF in suicide victims. Biological Psychiatry, 25, 355–359.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Banki, C. M., Bissette, G., Arato, M., O’Connor, L., & Nemeroff, C. B. (1987). CSF corticotropin-releasing factor-like immunoreactivity in depression and schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 873–877.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bauer M., Priebe, S., Graf, K.J., et al. (1994). Psychological and endocrine abnormalities in refugees from East Germany: Part II. Serum levels of Cortisol, prolactin, luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone and testosterone. Psychiatry Research, 51(1), 75–85.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bidzinska, E.J. (1984). Stress factors in affective diseases. British Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 161–166.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bourne, P. B., Rose, R. M., & Mason, J. W. (1967). Urinary 17-OHCA levels. Data on seven helicopter ambulance medics in combat. Archives of General Psychiatry, 17, 104–110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bourne, P. B., Rose, R. M., & Mason, J. W. (1968). 17-OHCS levels in combat: Special forces “A” team under threat of attack. Archives of General Psychiatry, 19, 135–140.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boscarino. J. A. (1996). Posttraumatic stress disorder, exposure to combat, and lower plasma Cortisol among Vietnam veterans: Findings and clinical implications. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(1), 191–201.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bremner, J. D., Southwick, S. M., Johnson, D. R., Yehuda, R., & Charney, D. S. (1993). Childhood physical abuse and combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 234–239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bremner, J., Licinio, J., Darnell, A., Krystal, J. H., Owens, M.J., Southwick, S. M., Nemeroff, C. B., & Charney, D. S. (1997). Elevated CSF corticotropin-releasing factor concentrations in posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154(5), 624–629.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Breslau, N., Davis, G. C, Andreski, P., & Peterson E. (1991). Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 216–222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caroll, B.J., Feinberg, M., Greden J. F., Tarika J., Albala, A. A., Haskett, R. F. James, N. M., Kronfolz, S., Lohr, N., Steiner, M., de Vigne, J. P., & Young, E. (1981). A specific laboratory test for the diagnosis of melancholia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 15–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chappell, P. B., Smithe, M. A., Kilts, C. D., Bissette, G., Ritchie, J., Anderson, C, & Nemeroff, C. B. (1986). Alterations in corticotropin-releasing factor-like immunoreactivity in discrete rat brain regions after acute and chronic stress. Journal of Neuroscience, 6, 2908.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chrousos, G. P., & Gold, P. W. (1992). The concepts of stress and stress system disorders. Overview of physical and behavioral homeostasis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 267, 1244–1252.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Bellis, M., Chrousos, G. P., Dorn, L. D., Burke, L., Helmers, K., Kling, M. A., Trickett, P. K., & Putnam, F. W. (1994). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysregulation in sexually abused girls. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 78, 249–255.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dekaris, D., Sabioncello, A., Mazuran, R., et al. (1993). Multiple changes of immunologie parameters in prisoners of war. Journal of the American Medical Association, 270, 595–599.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Kloet, R., Joels, M., Oitzl, M., & Sutanto, W. (1991). Implication of brain corticosteroid receptor diversity for the adaptation syndrome concept. Methods Achieve Experimental Pathology, 14, 104–132.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dinan, T. G., Barry, S., Yatham, L. N., Moyabed, M., & Brown, I. (1990). A pilot study of a neuroendocrine test battery in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 28, 665–672.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fellman, D., Bugnon, G, & Gouger, A. (1982). An immunocytochemical demonstration of corticoliberin-like immunoreactivity (CLI) in neurons of the rat amygdala central nucleus (ACN). Neuroscience Letters, 34, 253.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, M. J., & Yehuda, R. (1995). PTSD and comorbidity: Psychobiological approaches to differential diagnosis. In M.J. Friedman, D. S. Charney, & A. Y Deutch (Eds.), Neurobiological and clinical consequences of stress: From normal adaptation to PTSD. New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghaziuddin, M., Ghaziuddin, N., & Stein, G. S. (1990). Life events and the recurrence of depression. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 35, 239–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goenjian, A. K, Yehuda, R., Pynoos, R. S., Steinberg, A. M., Tashjian, M., Yang, R. K., Najarian, L. M, & Fairbanks, L. A. (1996). Basal Cortisol and dexamethasone suppression of Cortisol among adolescents after the 1988 earthquake in Armenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 153(7), 929–934.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gormley, G.J., Lowy, M. T., Reder, A. T., Hospelhorn, V. D., Antel J. P., & Meltzer, H. Y (1985). Glucocorticoid receptors in depression: Relationship to the dexamethasone suppression test. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 1278–1284.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Green, B. (1993). Identifying survivors at risk: Trauma and stressors across events. In J. Wilson & B. Raphael (Eds.), International handbook of traumatic stress syndromes. New York: Plenum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Halbreich, U., Olympia, J., Carson, S., Glogowski J., Yeh, C., Axelrod, S., & Desu, M.M. (1989). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal activity in indigenously depressed post-traumatic stress disorder patients. Psychoneuro-endocrinology, 14, 365–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heim, C., Ehlert, U., Rexhausen, J., Hanker, J. P., & Hellhammer, D. H. (1997). Psychoendocrinological observations in women with chronic pelvic pain. In R. Yehuda & A. C. McFarlane (Eds.), Psychobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder, Vol. 821 (pp. 456–458). New York: New York Academy of Sciences.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hellhammer, D. H., & Wade, S. (1993). Endocrine correlates of stress vulnerability. Psychother-Psychosom, 60(1), 8–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, C. F., Keller, T. W., Peskind, E. R., McFall, M. E., Veith, R. C., Martin, D., Wilkinson, C. W., & Raskind, M. (1997). Behavioral and plasma Cortisol responses to sodium lactate infusion in posttraumatic stress disorder. In R. Yehuda & A. C. McFarlance (Eds.), Psychobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder (pp. 444–447). New York: New York Academy of Sciences.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kellner, M., Baker, D. G., & Yehuda, R. (1997). Salivary Cortisol in Operation Desert Storm returnees. Biological Psychiatry, 42, 849–850.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the national comorbidity survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048–1060.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kosten, T. R., Mason, J. W., Giller, E. L., Harkness, L., & Ostroff, R. (1987). Sustained urinary norepinephrine and epinephrine levels in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 12, 13–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kosten, T. R., Wahby, V., Giller, E., & Mason. J. (1990). The dexamethasone suppression test and thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 28, 657.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krishnan, R. R., Ritchie, J. C., Reed, D., et al. (1991). CRF stimulation test results before and after dexamethasone in depressed patients and normal controls. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kudler, H., Davidson, J., Meador, K., Lipper, S., & Ely, T. (1987). The DST and post-traumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 1068–1071.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S., Cohen. J. B., Folkman S., Kanner, A., & Schaefer, C. (1980). Psychological stress and adaptation: Some unresolved issues. In H. Selye (Ed.), Selye’s guide to stress research, Vol. 1 (pp. 90–117). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lemieux, A. M., & Coe, C. L. (1995). Abuse-related posttraumatic stress disorder: Evidence for chronic neuroendocrine activation in women. Psychosomatic Medicine, 57, 105–115.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ling, M. H. M., Perry, P. J., & Tsuang, M. T. (1981). Side effects of corticosteroid therapy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 471–477.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lisansky, J., Peake, G. T., Strassman, R. J., Kualls, C., Meikle, A. W., Risch, S. C, Fava, G. A., Zownir-Brazis, M., Hochla, P., & Britton, D. (1989). Augmented pituitary corticotropin response to a threshold dosage of human corticotropin-releasing hormone in depressive pretreated with metyrapone. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 641–649.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lowy, M. T., Gormley, G. J., & Reder, A. T. (1989). Immune function, glucocorticoid receptor regulation and depression. In Depressive disorders and immunity (pp. 105–134). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • March, J. S. (1993). What constitutes a stressor: the “criterion A” issue. Inj. R. T. Davidson & E. B. Foa (Eds.), Posttraumatic stress disorder: DSM-IV and beyond. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, J. W. (1968). A review of psychoendocrine research on the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary system. Psychosomatic Medicine, 30, 631–653.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mason, J. W. (1975). A historical view of the stress field, part I. Journal of Human Stress, 1, 6–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mason, J. W., Giller, E. L., Kosten, T. R., Ostroff, R. B., & Podd, L. (1986). Urinary-free Cortisol levels in posttraumatic stress disorder patients. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders, 174, 145–159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mason, J. W., Giller, E. L., Kosten, T. R., & Yehuda R. (1990b). Psychoendocrine approaches to the diagnosis and pathogenesis of PTSD. In Biological assessment and treatment of PTSD (pp. 65–86). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McEwen, B. S., De Kloet, E. R., & Rostene, W. H. (1986). Adrenal steroid receptors and actions in the nervous system. Physiological Reviews, 66, 1121–1188.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McFarlane, A. C. (1990). Vulnerability to posttraumatic stress disorder. In M. E. Wolf & A. D. Mosnaim (Eds.), Posttraumatic stress disorder: Etiology, phenomenology and treatment. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meikle, A. W. Jubiz, W., Hutchings, M. P., West, C. D., & Tyler, F. H. (1969). A simplified metyrapone test with determination of plasma 11-deoxycortisol. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology, 29, 985–987.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merchanthaler, I. (1984). Corticotropin-releasing factor (CFR)-like immunoreactivity in the rat central nervous system. Extrahypothalamic distribution. Peptides, 5, 53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Munck, A., Guyre, P. M., & Holbrook, N.J. (1984). Physiological functions of glucocorticoids in stress and their relation to pharmacological actions. Endocrinology Reviews, 93, 9779–9783.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nemeroff, C. B., Widerlov, E., Bissette, G., Walleus, H., Karlsson, I., Eklund, K., Kilts, C. D., Loosen, P. X, & Vale, W. (1984). Elevated concentrations of CSF corticotropin-releasing factor-like immunoreactivity in depressed patients. Science, 226, 1342–1344.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olivera, A. A., & Fero, D. (1990). Affective disorders, DST, and treatment in PTSD patients: Clinical observations. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 3, 407–414.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pitman, R. K., & Orr, S. (1990). Twenty-four hour urinary Cortisol and catecholamine excretion in combatrelated posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 27, 245–247.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pitman, R. K, Orr, S. P., Forgue, D. F., De Jong J. B., & Clairborn, J. M. (1987). Psychophysiologic assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder imagery in Vietnam combat veterans. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 970–975.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Post, R. M., Rubinow, D. R., & Ballenger, J. C. (1986). Conditioning and sensitization in the longitudinal course of affective illness. British Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 191–201.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rabkin, J. G., & Struening, E. L. (1976). Life events, stress and illness. Science, 194, 1013–1020.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Resnick, H. S., Yehuda, R., Pitman, R., et al. (1995). Effect of previous trauma on acute plasma Cortisol level following rape. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 1675–1677.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rivier, C. L., & Plotsky, P. M. (1986). Mediation by corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) of adenohypophysial hormone secretion. Annual Review of Physiology, 48, 475–494.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sapolsky, R. M. (1996). Does stress damage the brain? Science, 273, 749–750.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sapolsky, R. M., Krey, L. C, & McEwen, B. S. (1985). Prolonged glucocorticoid exposure reduces hippocampal neuron number. Implications for aging. Journal of Neuroscience, 5, 1221–1226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sawchenko, P. E., & Swanson, L. W. (1985). Localization, colocalization and plasticity of corticotropinreleasing factor immunoreactivity in rat brain. Fed Proceedings, 44, 221.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlecte. J. A., Ginsburg, B. H., & Sherman, B. M. L. (1982). Regulation of the glucocorticoid receptor in human lymphocytes. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry, 16, 69–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Selyle, H. (Ed.). (1980). Selye’s guide to stress research, Vol. 1. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

    Google Scholar 

  • Selye, H. (1956). The stress of life. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shalev, A. Y, & Yehuda R. (1998). Longitudinal development of posttraumatic disorders. In Psychological trauma: Annual review of psychiatry, Vol. 17, Section 5. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, M. A., Davidson, J., Ritchie, J. C, Kudler, H., Lipper, S., Chappell, P., & Nemeroff, C. B. (1989). The corticotropin releasing hormone test in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 26, 349–355.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, M. B., Yehuda, R., Koverola, C, & Hanna, C. (1997). Enhanced dexamethasone suppression of plasma Cortisol in adult women traumatized by childhood sexual abuse. Biological Psychiatry, 42, 680–686.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Svec, F. (1985). Minireview: Glucocorticoid receptor regulation. Life Sciences, 35, 2359–2366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swann, A. C, Secunda, S. K, Stokes, P. E., Croughan J., Davis J. M., Koslow, S. H., & Maas J. W. (1990). Stress, depression, and mania: Relationship between perceived role of stressful events and clinical and biological characteristics. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 81, 389–397.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, L. W., Sawchenko, P. E., Rivier, J., & Vale, W. W. (1983). Organization of ovine corticotropinreleasing factor immunoreactive cells and fibers in the rat brain: An immunohistochemical study. Neuroendocrinology, 36, 165.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tepperman, J. (1981). Metabolic and endocrine physiology, 4th ed. New York: Year Book Medical.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tornello, S., Orti, E., De Nicola, A. F., Rainbow, T. C, & McEwen, B. S. (1982). Regulation of glucocorticoid receptor in brain corticosterone treatment of adrenalectomized rats. Neuroendocrinology, 35, 411–4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ur, E., Dinan, T. G., O’Keane, M., Clare, A., McLoughline, L., Reese, L., Turner, T., Grossman, M., & Besser, M. (1992). Effect of metyrapone on the pituitary adrenal axis in depression: Relation to dexamethasone suppressor status. Neuroendocrinology, 56, 533–538.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Veith, R. C, & Murburg, M. M. (1994). Assessment of sympathetic nervous system functioning in PTSD: A critique of methodology. In Catecholamine function in post-traumatic stress disorder: Emerging concepts (pp.309–334). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vernikos Danellis. J., Goldenrath, W. L., & Dolas C. B. (1975). The physiological cost of flight stress and flight fatigue. US Navy Medical Journal, 66, 12–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolkowitz, O. M., Reus V. I., Weingartner, H., et al. (1990). Cognitive effects of corticosteroids. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 1297–1303.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R. (1998). Neuroendocrinology of trauma and PTSD. In Psychological trauma: Annual review of psychiatry, Vol. 17, Section 5 (pp. 97–125). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., & McFarlane, A. C. (1995). Conflict between current knowledge about posttraumatic stress disorder and its original conceptual basis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 1705–1713.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., & Nemeroff, C. B. (1994). Neuropeptide alterations in affective and anxiety disorders. In J. A. DenBoer & A. Sitsen (Eds.), Handbook on depression and anxiety: A biological approach (pp. 543–571). New York: Dekker.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., Southwick, S. M., Nussbaum, G., Giller, E. L., & Mason, J. W. (1990). Low urinary Cortisol excretion in PTSD. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders, 178, 366–369.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., Giller, E. L., Southwick, S. M., Lowy, M. T, & Mason, J. W. (1991). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal dysfunction in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 30, 1031–1048.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., Lowy, M. T., Southwick, S. M., Shaffer, S., & Giller, E. L. (1991). Increased lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptor number in posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 499–504.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., Southwick, S. M., Krystal J. M., Charney, D. S., & Mason, J. W. (1993a). Enhanced suppression of Cortisol following dexamethasone administration in combat veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder and major depressive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 83–86.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., Boisoneau, D., Mason, J. W., & Giller, E. L. (1993b). Relationship between lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptor number and urinary-free Cortisol excretion in mood, anxiety, and psychotic disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 34, 18–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., Teicher, M. H., Levengood, R. A., Trestman, R. L., & Siever, L.J. (1994). Orcadian regulation of basal Cortisol levels in posttraumatic stress disorder. In Corticosteroid receptors and function. New York: Academy of Sciences.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., Giller, E. L., Levengood, R. A., Southwick, S. M., & Siever, L. (1995). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal alterations in PTSD: Expanding the stress-response spectrum. In M.J. Friedman, D. S. Charney, & A. Y. Deutch (Eds.), Neurobiological and clinical consequences of stress: From normal adaptation to PTSD. New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., Kahana, B., Binder-Brynes, K., Southwick, S., Zemelman, S., Mason, J. W., & Giller, E. L. (1995). Low urinary Cortisol excretion in Holocaust survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 7–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., Boisoneau, D., Lowy, M. T., & Giller, E. L. (1996a). Dose-response changes in plasma Cortisol and lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptors following dexamethasone administration in combat veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 583–593.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., Levengood, R., Schmeidler. J., Wilson, S., Guo, L. S., & Gerber, D. (1996b). Increased pituitary activation following metyrapone administration in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 21, 1–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., Teicher, M. H., Trestman, R. L., Levengood, R. A., & Siever, L.J. (1996c). Cortisol regulation in post-traumatic stress disorder and major depression: A chronobiological analysis. Biological Psychiatry, 40, 79–88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., McFarlane, A. C, & Shalev, A. Y. (1998). Predicting the development of posttraumatic stress disorder from the acute response to a traumatic event. Biological Psychiatry, 44, 1305–1313.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Young, E. A., Haskett, R. F., Grunhaus, L., Pande, A., Murphy-Weinberg, V., & Watson, S.J. (1994). Increased evening activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in depressed patients. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 701–707.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Mount Sinai School of Medicine, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Program, Bronx Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 10468, Bronx, New York, USA

    Rachel Yehuda

Authors
  1. Rachel Yehuda
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Hadassah University Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel

    Arieh Y. Shalev

  2. Mount Sinai School of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA

    Rachel Yehuda

  3. Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville, South Australia, Australia

    Alexander C. McFarlane

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2000 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Yehuda, R. (2000). Cortisol Alterations in PTSD. In: Shalev, A.Y., Yehuda, R., McFarlane, A.C. (eds) International Handbook of Human Response to Trauma. Springer Series on Stress and Coping. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-4177-6_19

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-4177-6_19

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4613-6873-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4615-4177-6

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation