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Foundations of Bilingual Memory pp 11–39Cite as

Bilingual Memory Storage: Compound-Coordinate and Derivatives

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Abstract

A recurring theoretical issue in the study of bilingualism concerns the manner in which speakers of one or more languages might store their languages in memory.

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Internet Sites Related to Bilingual Memory and Bilingualism

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Acknowledgments

The writing and research reported in this chapter was supported in part by Title V PPOHA Grant P031M105048 to Roberto R. Heredia, and a GREAT Program Faculty Research Grant to Anna B. Cieślicka. We thank Bonnie A. Rudolph and Jeanette Altarriba for helpful comments on an earlier version of this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology and Communication, Texas A&M International University, 5201 University Boulevard, 78041-1900, Laredo, TX, USA

    Roberto R. Heredia

Authors
  1. Roberto R. Heredia
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  2. Anna B. Cieślicka
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Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology and Communication, Texas A&M International University, Laredo Texas, USA

    Roberto R. Heredia

  2. Department of Psychology, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany New York, USA

    Jeanette Altarriba

Appendices

List of Keywords and Concepts

Acquisitional context, Age of acquisition (AOA), Association model, Associative priming, Language asymmetry, Autobiographical memory, Bilingual type, Category interference effect, Concept mediation model, Conceptual system, Conceptual links, Content-addressable memory, Coordinate, Critical period, Cross-language priming, Early bilingualism, Episodic memory, Generation effect, Hierarchical models, Language-dependent effects, Late bilingualism, Lexical system, Lexical links, Pure bilingualism, Revised hierarchical model (RHM), Semantic network, Semantic priming, Sequential bilingualism, Simultaneous bilingualism, Subordinate, Successive bilingualism

Thought Questions

  1. 1.

    After learning about the different bilingual types, can you figure out what type of bilingual are you?

  2. 2.

    For the next 5 days, keep track of your dreams, and try to determine if your dreams are in Spanish or in English. Think about the dreams in English, and then in Spanish. Which language helps you the most in remembering your dreams?

  3. 3.

    At the beginning of the chapter, you learned about cognates or words across languages with overlapping orthographical and semantic representations (e.g., attention vs. atención in Spanish). Find an Italian-Spanish or Italian-English dictionary and identify possible cognates. What is the Italian translation for the Spanish word atención? What is the relationship between the Spanish and Italian cognates? Would it be possible to generate a rule, and apply it to all Spanish words ending with the suffix -ción and convert them to Italian? Would this same rule apply to English as well?

  4. 4.

    At what age did you learn your L2? Do you have an accent? Do you feel more comfortable communicating in English? Using the revised hierarchical model as your theoretical framework, please explain your response.

  5. 5.

    Think about some English concepts such as handsome and pretty and ask a 6- or 7-year-old child if girls are handsome and boys are pretty. What results did you obtain? Can you explain the results to your classmates using what you know about bilingual models?

Applied Issues in Learning and Memory in the Acquisition of an L2 and Vocabulary Learning

A critical issue in L2 acquisition is how to increase word knowledge or vocabulary learning. How can we best facilitate and speed up the acquisition of L2 words for L2 learners? One possibility is to consider the so-called indirect method, in which L2 words are paired with their L1 translations, and combine it with other memory encoding techniques, such as the generation effect, discussed in this chapter (see Basi et al. 1997) . L2 words can be efficiently encoded, for later retrieval, if L2 learners actively generate, and at the same time, establish meaningful relationships between translation equivalents. L2 learners find it interesting to learn that animal sounds are interpreted differently across languages. For example, arf arf is used to represent the dog’s bark in English, and guau guau in Spanish .

Moreover, varying word clusters or word types (e.g., cognates, homographs, abstract vs. concrete, and compound words) during the teaching or learning phases can enhance L2 vocabulary learning. Teaching plans can be designed in which L2 learners discover or generate translation equivalents for cross-language cognates (e.g., attention vs. atención). Learners can be further encouraged to generate rules capable of converting L1 to L2 words. For example, Spanish words ending with the suffix -ción can easily be converted into English -tion (e.g., attention) or Italian -zione (e.g., attenzione). Additionally, interlingual homographs (e.g., red as in color vs. red as net in Spanish), by virtue of their false cognate status, provide the distinctive and unique encoding cues necessary to properly and efficiently retrieve these words at a later time.

Finally, compound words (e.g., nuthouse) provide the distinct opportunity to represent multiple meanings and multiple words at the same time. For example, the English compound nuthouse affords the English learner the unique opportunity to consider the different meanings of the compound word (e.g., a place where a hardware product is made, a place where fruits of the family of nuts is stored, and quite often, the intended meaning, a mental hospital.

Suggested Projects

  1. 1.

    Find the article by Kolers and Gonzalez (1980), listed in the suggested readings, and try to replicate the results of this study. Visit http://www.tamiu.edu/~rheredia/materials.html for a list of possible bilingual databases that you can use to find the stimuli (i.e., words) you need for the experiment. Keep your professor informed and request your institution’s approval before you start the experiment. Follow the procedures as close as possible. It is critical that before you start the experiment you know which variable you will be manipulating (i.e., the independent variable), and how this variable (i.e., the dependent variable) will be measured. All this information is provided in the methods section. After completing the experiment, analyze your results using the same statistical analysis employed by Kolers and Gonzalez in their study. Analyze your results using PSPP (https://www.gnu.org/software/pspp/pspp.html), a free statistical analysis software program. Discuss the results of your experiment with your professor, and discuss your study and outcomes with your classmates. Were you able to replicate Kolers and Gonzalez’ findings?

  2. 2.

    For this project, you will need to learn OpenSesame (http://osdoc.cogsci.nl/), a free software experiment builder. A tutorial on how to use OpenSesame can be accessed from Youtube (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v = -zMH65re1m0&feature=youtu.be). After you master OpenSesame, find a bilingual article on word cognates (e.g., attention vs. atención in Spanish) and follow the procedures as close as possible. Make this experiment a simple one by choosing words from only one language (English or Spanish). OpenSesame will allow you to measure reaction time, or time taken by participants to retrieve a word concept from memory. Your goal in this experiment is to investigate possible differences between compound and coordinate bilinguals (see Fig. 3, and the discussion about bilingual types) in their responses to cognates. What do you expect to find? Do you expect differences in response time between the two groups? Why or why not? Analyze your data and discuss the results with your classmates. What were the results? Did your results support your hypotheses? Why or why not?

  3. 3.

    For this project, follow the same procedure as in 2 above. However, separate your two groups into early versus late bilinguals. Do you expect to find differences between early and late bilinguals? In general, would you expect early and late bilinguals to be different than compound and coordinate bilinguals? Why or why not?

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Heredia, R., Cieślicka, A. (2014). Bilingual Memory Storage: Compound-Coordinate and Derivatives. In: Heredia, R., Altarriba, J. (eds) Foundations of Bilingual Memory. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-9218-4_2

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