Abstract
Atherosclerosis is a global disease affecting the entire arterial system and it is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in all continents. It is the commonest form of arteriosclerosis, a term used to indicate thickening of the arterial walls.
Keywords
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Stary HC (1987) Macrophages, macrophage foam cells and eccentric intimal thickening in the coronary arteries of young children. Atherosclerosis 64:91–108
Napoli C, D’Armiento FP, Mancini F, Postiglione A, Witztum JL, Palumbo G, Palinski W (1997) Fatty streak formation occurs in human fetal aortas and is greatly enhanced by maternal hypercholesterolemia. Intimal accumulation of low density lipoprotein and its oxidation precede monocyte recruitment into early atherosclerotic lesions. J Clin Invest 100:2680
Yuan XM, Brunk UT, Hazel L (2000) The morphology and natural history of atherosclerosis. In: Dean RT, Klly DT (eds) Atherosclerosis: gene expression, cell interactions and oxidation. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Haudenschild CC (1994) Vascular wall physiology. In: White RA, Hollier LH (eds) Vascular surgery basic science and clinical correlations. JB Lippincott, Philadelphia, PA
Montecucco F, Lenglet S, Gayet-Ageron A et al (2010) Systemic and intraplaque mediators of inflammation are increased in patients symptomatic for ischemic stroke. Stroke 41:1394–1404
Koskinas KC, Feldman CL, Chatzizissis YS et al (2010) Natural history of experimental coronary atherosclerosis and vascular remodeling in relation to endothelial shear stress: a serial in vivo intravascular ultrasound study. Circulation 121:2092–2101
Markl M, Wegent F, Zech T et al (2010) In vivo wall shear stress distribution in the carotid artery: effect of bifurcation geometry, internal carotid artery stenosis and recanalization therapy. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 3:647–655
Wolin MS (2000) Interactions of oxidants with vascular signaling systems. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 20:1430
Muhlestein JB (1998) Bacterial infections and atherosclerosis. J Investig Med 46:396
Ford PJ, Yamazaki K, Seymour GJ (2007) Cardiovascular and oral disease interactions: what is the evidence? Prim Dent Care 14:59
Ross R (1999) Atherosclerosis – an inflammatory disease. New Engl J Med 340:115
Kovanen PT (1996) Mast cells in human fatty streaks and atheromas: implications for intimal lipid accumulation. Curr Opin Lipidol 7:281
Raines EW, Rosenfeld ME, Ross R (1996) The role of macrophages. In: Fuster V, Topol EJ (eds) Atherosclerosis and coronary artery disease. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, PA
Stary HC (1993) The evolution of human atherosclerotic lesions. Merck, West Point, PA
Glagov S, Zarins CK, Giddens DP, Ku DN (1988) Hemodynamics and atherosclerosis. Insights and perspectives gained from studies of human arteries. Arch Pathol Lab Med 112:1018–1031
O’Leary DH, Polak JF, Kronmal RA, Manolio TA, Burke GL, Wolfson SK Jr (1999) Carotid-artery intima and media thickness as a risk factor for myocardial infarction and stroke in older adults. Cardiovascular Health Study Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med 340:14–22
Salonen JT, Salonen R (1991) Ultrasonographically assessed carotid morphology and the risk of coronary heart disease. Arterioscler Thromb 11:1245–1249
Dickinson LE, Rand DR, Tsao J, Eberle W, Gerecht S (2012) Endothelial cell responses to micropillar substrates of varying dimensions and stiffness. J Biomed Mater Res A 100(6):1457–1466. doi:10.1002/jbm.a.34059
Vicenzini E, Giannoni MF, Benedetti-Valentini F, Lenzi GL (2009) Imaging of carotid plaque angiogenesis. Cerebrovasc Dis 27(Suppl 2):48–54
Gossl M, Versari D, Hildebrandt HA et al (2010) Segmental heterogeneity of vasa-vasorum neovascularization in human coronary atherosclerosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 3:32–40
Hellings WE, Peeters W, Moll F et al (2010) Composition of carotid atherosclerotic plaque is associated with cardiovascular outcome: a prognostic study. Circulation 121:1941–1950
Falk E, Shah PK, Fuster V (1995) Coronary plaque disruption. Circulation 92:657–671
Arroyo LH, Lee RT (1999) Mechanisms of plaque rupture: mechanical and biological interactions. Cardiovasc Res 41:369–375
Zhou J, Chew M, Ravn HB, Falk E (1999) Plaque pathology and coronary thrombosis in the pathogenesis of acute coronary syndromes. Scand J Clin Lab Invest Suppl 230:3–11
Falk E, Fuster V, Shah PK (1998) Interrelationship between atherosclerosis and thrombosis. In: Verstraete M, Fuster V, Topol EJ (eds) Cardiovascular thrombosis: thrombocardiology and thromboneurology. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, PA, pp 45–58
Korsholm T-L, Lyngdorf LG, Falk E (2002) Atherosclerotic lesions: vulnerability. In: Lanzer P, Topol E (eds) Pan vascular medicine. Springer, Heidelberg
Bassiouny HS, Sakaguchi Y, Mikucki SA et al (1997) Juxtalumenal location of plaque necrosis and neoformation in symptomatic carotid stenosis. J Vasc Surg 26:585
Pedro LM, Pedro MM, Goncalves I, Carneiro TF, Balsinha C, Fernandes e Fernandes R, Fernandes e Fernandes J (2000) Computer-assisted carotid plaque analysis: characteristics of plaques associated with cerebrovascular symptoms and cerebral infarction. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 19:118–123
Steffen CM, Gray-Weale AC, Byrne KE, Lusby RJ (1989) Carotid artery atheroma: ultrasound appearance in symptomatic and asymptomatic vessels. Aust N Z J Surg 59(7):529–534
Pedro LM (2003) A window to atherosclerosis: high definition ultrasonography in the study of the arterial wall. University of Lisbon, Lisbon
Moniz E (1927) L’éncephalographie artérielle: son importance dans la localization des tumeurs cérébrales. Rev Neurol 2:172
Moniz E, Lima A, Lacerda R (1937) Hemiplegies par thrombose de la carotide interne. Presse Med 45:977
Cid dos Santos J (1971) In memoriam Reynaldo dos Santos: profile of a scientist. J Cardiovasc Surg 12:78–81
Seldinger SI (1953) Catheter replacement of the needle in percutaneous arteriograhy. Acta Radiol 39:368–376
Cid dos Santos J (1947) Sur la desobliteration des thromboses arterièlles anciènnes. Mem Acad Chir (Paris) 73:409
Rothwell PM, Gibson R, Warlow CP (2000) Interrelation between plaque surface morphology and degree of stenosis on carotid angiograms and the risk of ischemic stroke in patients with symptomatic carotid stenosis. On behalf of the European Carotid Surgery Trialists’ Collaborative Group. Stroke 31:615–621
Heller RS, Malek AM (2012) Successful detection of embologenic ulceration in a symptomatic non-hemodynamic intracranial stenosis using C-arm cone beam CT. J Neurointerv Surg 5(2):e3
Miller JM, Rochitte CE, Dewey M et al (2008) Diagnostic performance of coronary angiography by 64-row CT. N Eng J Med 359:2324–2336
Hoffmann U, Moselewski F, Nieman K et al (2006) Non-invasive assessment of plaque morphology and composition in culprit and stable lesions in acute coronary syndrome and stable lesions in stable angina by multidetector computed tomography. J Am Coll Cardiol 47:1655–1662
Hyafil F, Cornily JC, Feig JE et al (2007) Noninvasive detection of macrophages using a nanoparticle contrast agent for computed tomography. Nat Med 13:636–641
Sakuma H, Ichikawa Y, Chino S et al (2006) Detection of coronary artery stenosis with whole-heart coronary magnetic resonance angiography. J Am Coll Cardiol 48:1946–1950
Kim WY, Stuber M, Bornert P et al (2002) Three-dimensional black-blood cardiac magnetic resonance coronary vessel wall imaging detects positive arterial remodeling in patients with non-significant coronary artery disease. Circulation 106:296–299
Mitsumori LM, Hatsukami TS, Ferguson MS et al (2003) In vivo accuracy of multisequence MR imaging for identifying unstable fibrous caps in advanced human carotid plaques. J Magn Resson Imaging 17:410–420
Ruehm SG, Corot C, Vogt P et al (2001) Magnetic resonance imaging of atherosclerotic plaque with ultra small superparamagnetic particles of iron oxide in hyperlipidemic rabbits. Circulation 103:415–422
Botnar RM, Perez AS, White S et al (2004) In vivo molecular imaging of acute and subacute thrombosis using a fibrin-binding magnetic resonance imaging contrast agent. Circulation 109:2023–2029
Alexandrov AV, Bladin CF, Maggisano R, Norris JW (1993) Measuring carotid stenosis. Time for a reappraisal. Stroke 24:1292–1296
Grant EG, Benson CB, Moneta GL et al (2003) Carotid artery stenosis: gray-scale and Doppler US diagnosis – Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound Consensus Conference. Radiology 229(2):340–346
Grant EG, Duerinckx AJ, El Saden S et al (1999) Doppler sonographic parameters for detection of carotid stenosis: is there an optimum method for their selection? AJR Am J Roentgenol 172:1123–1129
von Reutern GM, Goertler MW, Bornstein NM et al (2012) Grading carotid stenosis using ultrasonic methods. Stroke 43:916–921
Ebrahim S, Papacosta O, Whincup P, Wannamethee G, Walker M, Nicolaides AN, Dhanjil S, Griffin M, Belcaro G, Rumley A, Lowe GD (1999) Carotid plaque, intima media thickness, cardiovascular risk factors, and prevalent cardiovascular disease in men and women: the British Regional Heart Study. Stroke 30:841–850
Belcaro G, Laurora G, Cesarone MR, Barsotti A, Trevi GP, Renton S, Veller M, Fisher C, Gerulakos G, Nicolaides AN (1993) Noninvasive ultrasonic biopsy: evaluation of early arteriosclerotic lesions progression in normal asymptomatic, hyperlipidemic, and diabetic subjects. Angiology 44:93–99
Gronholdt ML, Nordestgaard BG, Wiebe BM (1998) Echolucency of computerized ultrasound images of carotid atherosclerotic plaques are associated with increased levels of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins as well as increased plaque lipid content. Circulation 97:34–40
Gonçalves I, Moses J, Dias N, Pedro LM, Fernandes e Fernandes J, Nilsson J, Ares MP (2003) Changes related to age and cerebrovascular symptoms in the extracellular matrix of human carotid plaques. Stroke 34:616–622
Gonçalves I, Moses J, Pedro LM, Dias N, Fernandes e Fernandes J, Nilsson J, Ares MP (2003) Echolucency of carotid plaques correlates with plaque cellularity. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 26:32–38
Gonçalves I, Lindholm MW, Pedro LM, Dias N, Fernandes e Fernandes J, Fredrikson GN, Nilsson J, Moses J, Ares MP (2004) Elastin and calcium rather than collagen or lipid content determine the echogenicity of human carotid plaques. Stroke 35:2795–2800
Sabetai MM, Tegos TJ, Nicolaides AN, El Atrozy TS, Dhanjil S, Griffin M, Belcaro G, Geroulakos G (2000) Hemispheric symptoms and carotid plaque echomorphology. J Vasc Surg 31:39–49
Biasi GM, Froio A, Diethrich EB, Deleo G, Galimberti S, Mingazzini P, Nicolaides AN, Griffin M, Raithel D, Reid DB, Valsecchi MG (2004) Carotid plaque echolucency increases the risk of stroke in carotid stenting: the Imaging in Carotid Angioplasty and Risk of Stroke (ICAROS) study. Circulation 110:756–762
Tegos TJ, Sabetai MM, Nicolaides AN, Elatrozy TS, Dhanjil S, Stevens JM (2001) Patterns of brain computed tomography infarction and carotid plaque echogenicity. J Vasc Surg 33:334–339
Tegos TJ, Sabetai MM, Nicolaides AN, Robless P, Kalodiki E, Elatrozy TS, Ramaswami G, Dhanjil S (2001) Correlates of embolic events detected by means of transcranial Doppler in patients with carotid atheroma. J Vasc Surg 33:131–138
Tegos TJ, Sohail M, Sabetai MM, Robless P, Akbar N, Pare G, Stansby G, Nicolaides AN (2000) Echomorphologic and histopathologic characteristics of unstable carotid plaques. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 21:1937–1944
Pedro LM, Pedro MM, Goncalves I, Carneiro TF, Balsinha C, Fernandes e Fernandes R, Fernandes e Fernandes J (1999) Placa de ateroma da bifurcação carotídea. Como identificar a lesão activa? Rev Port Cardiol 18:699–708
Tegos TJ, Kalodiki E, Nicolaides AN, Sabetai MM, Stevens JM, Thomas DJ (2001) Brain CT infarction in patients with carotid atheroma. Does it predict a future event? Int Angiol 20:110–117
Pedro LM, Fernandes e Fernandes J, Pedro MM, Gonçalves I, Dias NV, Fernandes e Fernandes R, Carneiro TF, Balsinha C (2002) Ultrasonographic risk score of carotid plaques. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 24:492–498
Nicolaides AN, Kakkos SK, Kyriacou E, Griffin M, Sabetai M, Thomas DJ, Tegos T, Geroulakos G, Labropoulos N, Doré CJ, Morris TP, Naylor R, Abbott AL, Asymptomatic Carotid Stenosis and Risk of Stroke (ACSRS) Study Group (2010) Asymptomatic internal carotid artery stenosis and cerebrovascular risk stratification. J Vasc Surg 52(6):1486–1496
Kadoglou NP, Gerasimidis T, Moumtzouoglou A et al (2008) Intensive lipid-lowering therapy ameliorates novel calcification markers and GSM score in patients with carotid stenosis. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 35(6):661–668
Moustafa RR, Izquierdo-Garcia D, Fryer TD et al (2010) Carotid plaque inflammation is associated with cerebral microembolism in patients with recent transient ischemic stroke or stroke: a pilot study. Circ Cardiovasc Imaging 3:536–541
Nair A, Kuban BD, Tuzcu EM et al (2002) Coronary plaque classification with intravascular ultrasound radiofrequency data analysis. Circulation 106:2200–2206
Hong MK, Mintz GS, Lee CW et al (2008) A three-vessel virtual histology intravascular ultrasound analysis of frequency and distribution of thin-cap fibroatheromas in patients with acute coronary syndrome or stable angina pectoris. Am J Cardiol 101:568–572
Tearney GJ, Waxman S, Shiskov M et al (2008) Three-dimensional coronary artery microscopy by intracoronary optical frequency domain imaging. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 1:752–761
Matter CM, Stuber M, Nahrendorf M (2009) Imaging of the unstable plaque: how far have we got? Eur Heart J 30:2566–2574
Jaffer FA, Kim DE, Quinti L et al (2007) Optical visualization of cathepsin K activity in atherosclerosis with a novel protease-activatable fluorescence sensor. Circulation 115:2292–2298
Aziz K, Berger K, Claycombe K et al (2008) Noninvasive detection and localization of vulnerable plaque and arterial thrombosis with computed tomography angiography/positron emission tomography. Circulation 117:2061–2070
Calcagno C, Cornily JC, Hyafil F et al (2008) Detection of neovessels in atherosclerotic plaques of rabbits using dynamic contrast enhanced MRI and 18F-FDG PET. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 28:1311–1317
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Fernandes e Fernandes, J., Pedro, L.M., Fernandes e Fernandes, R., Silvestre, L. (2014). Imaging Occlusive Atherosclerosis. In: Saba, L., Sanches, J., Pedro, L., Suri, J. (eds) Multi-Modality Atherosclerosis Imaging and Diagnosis. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7425-8_1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7425-8_1
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-7424-1
Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-7425-8
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)