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Primates, Pathogens, and Evolution pp 253–289Cite as

Neotropical Primates and Their Susceptibility to Toxoplasma gondii: New Insights for an Old Problem

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Part of the book series: Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects ((DIPR))

Abstract

Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic disease affecting warm-blooded vertebrates and caused by Toxoplasma gondii. For most hosts, infection with T. gondii is unapparent or produces subtle and mild clinical outcomes. On the other hand, for some groups of mammals, in particular neotropical nonhuman primates, toxoplasmosis is a severe disease, often with fatal outcomes. However, available data suggest that the response of New World Primates (NWPs) to toxoplasmosis is not homogeneous, and existing information support three distinct response patterns: I that is observed mainly in Callitrichinae (Saguinus, Leontopithecus, and Callithrix), where the disease is markedly severe, with mortality rate close to 100 %; II that is seen in a diverse group of NWPs from families Cebidae (Saimiri and Aotus) and Atelidae (Alouatta, Ateles, Lagothrix), characterized by the occurrence of severe outbreaks with variable mortality rates but the survival of variable number (15–66 %) of individuals with positive serology; and III that is observed in genus Cebus, where the infection induces high and persistent IgG titers, clinical presentation is mild, and the animals rarely die. The reasons for these variable response patterns are not fully clear, but we believe that it may be, at least partially, due to different ecological and behavioral characteristics of NWPs, exposing them to T. gondii in different ways. Moreover, we believe that the variability of T. gondii strains, as well as the possibility of how the immune response against the parasite may have been changed along the evolution process of Platyrrhini, should also be taken into account when analyzing the existence of different response patterns.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Recent phylogeographic analysis has shown that capuchins contain two well-supported monophyletic clades, the morphologically distinct “gracile” (or untufted) and “robust” (or tufted) groups, and placed the age of the split at 6.7 Ma (95 % highest posterior density 4.1–9.4 Ma) (Alfaro et al. 2012a). Morphological and behavioral–ecological data also support a division of capuchins into the same two distinct groups. As a consequence Alfaro et al. (2012b) have argued for a division of capuchin monkeys into two genera: Sapajus Kerr, 1792, for the robust capuchins and Cebus Erxleben, 1777, for the gracile capuchins.

  2. 2.

    The capuchin monkeys are particularly complex in their taxonomy. For many years, taxonomic arrangements reduced all tufted capuchin monkeys to just one species, Cebus apella, with 11 and 16 (Hill 1960) subspecies. The most recent revisions, by Groves (2001) and Silva (2001), both based on morphology, differently recognized, as species, the following: apella and macrocephalus in the Amazon and libidinosus, nigritus, robustus, cay, and xanthosternos to the south. Groves (2001) presented an alternative as follows: Amazon forms C. apella apella, C. a. fatuellus, C. a. macrocephalus, C. a. peruanus, and C. a. tocantinus and southern forms C. libidinosus libidinosus, C. l. pallidus, C. l. paraguayanus, C. l. juruanus (Amazonian), C. nigritus nigritus, C. n. robustus, C. n. cucullatus, and C. xanthosternos (see Fragaszy et al. (2004) and Rylands et al. (2005)). In Brazil, captive capuchins (independently of origin) are generally named as Cebus apella, and in many occasions and in different institutions, individuals of different subspecies or species are kept together generating hybrid groups (M.C.M. Kierulff, personal observation). Because of all these problems, we decided to maintain the original names used for Cebus species cited in the references, mostly named just as Cebus apella with no distinction to subspecies, even known that it refers to species other than the Amazonians.

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Acknowledgments

We are grateful to the staff at LAPCOM–FMVZ/USP, UNIFESP, and UFES; without their efforts, this chapter would not have been possible. In particular, we would like to acknowledge the continuous financial support from Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) and Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq). José Luiz Catão-Dias is a recipient of a scholarship by the CNPq (301517/2006-1).

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  1. Laboratório de Patologia Comparada de Animais Selvagens, Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

    José Luiz Catão-Dias

  2. Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Diadema, São Paulo, Brazil

    Sabrina Epiphanio

  3. Departamento de Ciências Biológicas e Agrárias, Centro Universitário Norte do Espírito Santo, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, São Mateus, São Paulo, Brazil

    Maria Cecília Martins Kierulff

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  1. José Luiz Catão-Dias
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  3. Maria Cecília Martins Kierulff
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Correspondence to José Luiz Catão-Dias .

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  1. Department of Pediatrics, CHU Saint-Justine Research Center, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada

    Jessica F. Brinkworth

  2. Department of Anthropology, Queens College, City University of New Y, New York, New York, USA

    Kate Pechenkina

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Catão-Dias, J.L., Epiphanio, S., Kierulff, M.C.M. (2013). Neotropical Primates and Their Susceptibility to Toxoplasma gondii: New Insights for an Old Problem. In: Brinkworth, J., Pechenkina, K. (eds) Primates, Pathogens, and Evolution. Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7181-3_9

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