Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Psychopharmacology of Pediatric Anxiety Disorders

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Pediatric Anxiety Disorders

Part of the book series: Current Clinical Psychiatry ((CCPSY))

Abstract

There are a number of pharmacological approaches used in treating pediatric anxiety disorders. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are first line treatment, but there are many other treatment options for nonresponders including serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), benzodiazepines (BZDs), buspirone, and other investigational and augmenting agents. This chapter will examine the evidence base for the pharmacological treatment of pediatric obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), non-OCD anxiety disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Additionally, augmentation strategies and general clinical considerations are presented to aid in formulating an approach to both simple and complex patients.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 89.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Ipser JC, Stein DJ, Hawkridge S, Hoppe L. Pharmacotherapy for anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009;(3):CD005170.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Safer DJ, Zito JM. Treatment-emergent adverse events from selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors by age group: children versus adolescents. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2006;16(1–2):159–69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Riddle MA, King R, Hardin MT, Scahill L, Ort S, Chappell P, et al. Behavioral side effects of fluoxetine in children and adolescents. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 1991;1(3):193–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Reinblatt SP, DosReis S, Walkup JT, Riddle MA. Activation adverse events induced by the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor fluvoxamine in children and adolescents. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2009;19(2):119–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Wilens TE, Biederman J, Kwon A, Chase R, Greenberg L, Mick E, et al. A systematic chart review of the nature of psychiatric adverse events in children and adolescents treated with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2003;13(2):143–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Goldsmith M, Singh M, Chang K. Antidepressants and psychostimulants in pediatric populations: is there an association with Mania? Paediatr Drugs. 2011;13(4):225–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Cheung AH, Emslie GJ, Mayes TL. Review of the efficacy and safety of antidepressants in youth depression. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2005;46(7):735–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Walkup JT, Albano AM, Piacentini J, Birmaher B, Compton SN, Sherrill JT, et al. Cognitive behavioral therapy, sertraline, or combination in childhood anxiety. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:2753–66.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. March J, Silva S, Petrycki S, Curry J, Wells K, Fairbanks J, et al. Fluoxetine, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and their combination for adolescents with depression: Treatment for Adolescents with Depression Study (TADS) randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;292(7):807–20.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Rosen RC, Lane RM, Menza M. Effects of SSRIs on sexual function: a critical review. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1999;19(1):67–85.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Fava M, Nurnberg G, Seidman SN, Holloway W, Nicholas S, Tseng LJ, et al. Efficacy and safety of sildenafil in men with serotonergic antidepressant-associated erectile dysfunction: results from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67(2):240–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Taylor MJ, Rudkin L, Hawton K. Strategies for managing antidepressant-induced sexual dysfunction: systematic review of randomized controlled trials. J Affect Disord. 2005;88(3):241–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Minino AM. Death in the United States, 2009. NCHS data brief, no 64. Hyattsville: National Center for Health Statistics; 2011.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Gibbons RD, Brown CH, Hur K, Marcus SM, Bhaumik DK, Erkens JA, et al. Early evidence on the effects of regulators’ suicidality warnings on SSRI prescriptions and suicide in children and adolescents. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(9):1356–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. March JS, Entusah AR, Rynn MA, Albano AM, Tourian KA. A randomized controlled trial of venlafaxine ER versus placebo in pediatric social anxiety disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;62(10):1149–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Rynn MA, Riddle MA, Yeung PP, Kunz NR. Efficacy and safety of extended-release venlafaxine in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder in children and adolescents: two placebo-controlled trials. Am J Psychiatry. 2007;164(2):290–300.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Effexor [Effexor prescribing information]. Philadelphia: Wyeth Laboratories; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Biederman J, Baldessarini RJ, Wright V, Knee D, Harmatz JS. A double-blind placebo controlled study of desipramine in the treatment of ADD: I. Efficacy. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1989;28(5):777.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Biederman J, Baldessarini RJ, Wright V, Knee D, Harmatz JS, Goldblatt A. A double-blind placebo controlled study of desipramine in the treatment ADD: II. Serum drug levels and cardiovascular findings. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1989;28(6):903.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Riddle MA, Geller B, Ryan N. Another sudden death in a child treated with desipramine. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1993;32(4):792–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Gillman PK. Tricyclic antidepressant pharmacology and therapeutic drug interactions updated. Br J Pharmacol. 2007;151(6):737–48.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Buspar [BuSpar prescribing information]. Princeton: Bristol-Myers Squibb; 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Mrakotsky C, Masek B, Biederman J, Raches D, Hsin O, Forbes P, et al. Prospective open-label pilot trial of mirtazapine in children and adolescents with social phobia. J Anxiety Disord. 2008;22(1):88–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. POTS. Cognitive-behavior therapy, sertraline, and their combination for children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder: the Pediatric OCD Treatment Study (POTS) randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;292(16):1969–76.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Franklin ME, Sapyta J, Freeman JB, Khanna M, Compton S, Almirall D, et al. Cognitive behavior therapy augmentation of pharmacotherapy in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder: the Pediatric OCD Treatment Study II (POTS II) randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2011;306(11):1224–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. March JS, Biederman J, Wolkow R, Safferman A, Mardekian J, Cook EH, et al. Sertraline in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder: a multicenter randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 1998;280(20):1752.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Cook EH, Wagner KD, March JS, Biederman J, Landau P, Wolkow R, et al. Long-term sertraline treatment of children and adolescents with obsessive compulsive-disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001;40(10):1175–81.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Geller DA, Hoog SL, Heiligenstein JH, Ricardi RK, Tamura R, Kluszynski S, et al. Fluoxetine treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents: a placebo-controlled clinical trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001;40(7):773–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Riddle MA, Scahill L, King RA, Hardin MT, Anderson GM, Ort SI, et al. Double-blind, crossover trial of fluoxetine and placebo in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1992;31(6):1062–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Geller DA, Wagner KD, Emslie G, Murphy T, Carpenter DJ, Wetherhold E, et al. Paroxetine treatment in children and adolescents with obsessive compulsive disorder: a randomized, multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2004;43(11):1387–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Riddle MA, Reeve EA, Yaryura-Tobias JA, Yang HM, Claghorn JL, Gaffney G, et al. Fluvoxamine for children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder: a randomized, controlled, multicenter trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001;40(2):222.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. DeVeaugh-Geiss J, Moroz G, Biederman J, Cantwell D, Fontaine R, Greist JH, et al. Clomipramine hydrochloride in childhood and adolescent obsessive-compulsive disorder: a multicenter trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1992;31(1):45–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Leonard HL, Swedo SE, Lenane MC, Rettew DC, Cheslow DL, Hamburger SD, et al. A double-blind desipramine substitution during long-term clomipramine treatment in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1991;48(10):922–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Leonard HL, Swedo SE, Rapoport JL, Koby EV, Lenane MC, Cheslow DL, et al. Treatment of obsessive-­compulsive disorder with clomipramine and desipramine in children and adolescents. A double-blind crossover comparison. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989;46(12):1088.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. March JS, Franklin ME, Leonard H, Garcia A, Moore P, Freeman J, et al. Tics moderate treatment outcome with sertraline but not cognitive behavioral therapy in pediatric obsessive compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;61(3):344–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Geller DA, Biederman J, Stewart SE, Mullin B, Martin A, Spencer T, et al. Which SSRI? A meta-analysis of pharmacotherapy trials in pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160(11):1919–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Geller DA, Biederman J, Stewart SE, Mullin B, Farrell C, Wagner KD, et al. Impact of comorbidity on treatment response to paroxetine in pediatric obsessive compulsive disorder: is the use of exclusion criteria empirically supported in randomized clinical trials? J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2003;13 Suppl 1:S19–29.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. McDougle CJ, Epperson CN, Pelton GH, Wasylink S, Price LH. A double blind, placebo-controlled study of risperidone addition in serotonin reuptake inhibitor-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2000;57(8):794–801.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Bridge JA, Iyengar S, Salary CB. Clinical response and risk for reported suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in pediatric antidepressant treatment: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. JAMA. 2007;297(15):1683–96.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Bloch MH, Landeros-Weisenberger A, Kelmendi B, Coric V, Bracken MB, Leckman JF. A systematic review: antipsychotic augmentation with treatment refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Mol Psychiatry. 2006;11(7):622–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Fitzgerald KD, Stewart CM, Tawile V, Rosenberg DR. Risperidone augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment of pediatric obsessive compulsive disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 1999;9(2):115.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Thomsen PH. Risperidone augmentation in the treatment of severe adolescent OCD in SSRI-refractory cases: a case series. Ann Clin Psychiatry. 2004;16(4):201–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Masi G, Pfanner C, Millepiedi S, Berloffa S. Aripiprazole augmentation in 39 adolescents with medication-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2010;30(6):688–93.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Fux M, Levine J, Aviv A, Belmaker RH. Inositol treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 1996;153(9):1219–21.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Fux M, Benjamin J, Belmaker RH. Inositol versus placebo augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in the treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a double blind cross-over study. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 1999;2(3):193–5.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Seedat S, Stein DJ. Inositol augmentation of serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treatment-refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder: an open trial. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 1999;14(6):353–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Grant P, Lougee L, Hirschtritt M, Swedo SE. An open label trial of riluzole, a glutamate antagonist, in children with treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2007;17(6):761–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Lafleur DL, Pittenger C, Kelmendi B, Gardner T, Wasylink S, Malison RT, et al. N-acetylcysteine augmentation in serotonin reuptake inhibitor refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychopharmacology. 2006;184(2):254–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Ledgerwood L, Richardson R, Cranney J. Effects of D-cycloserine on extinction of conditioned freezing. Behav Neurosci. 2003;117(2):341–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Walker DL, Ressler KJ, Lu K-T, Davis M. Facilitation of conditioned fear extinction by systemic administration or intra-amygdala infusions of D-cycloserine as assessed with fear-potentiated startle in rats. J Neurosci. 2002;22(6):2343–51.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Hofmann SG, Meuret AE, Smits JA, Simon NM, Pollack MH, Eisenmenger K, et al. Augmentation of exposure therapy with D-cycloserine for social anxiety disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63(3):298–304.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Guastella AJ, Richardson R, Lovibond PF, Rapee RM, Gaston JE, Mitchell P, et al. A randomized controlled trial of D-cycloserine enhancement of exposure therapy for social anxiety disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2008;63(6):544–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Otto MW, Tolin DF, Simon NM, Pearlson GD, Basden S, Meunier SA, et al. Efficacy of D-cycloserine for enhancing response to cognitive-behavioral therapy for panic disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2010;67(4):365–70.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Wilhelm S, Buhlmann U, Tolin DF, Meunier SA, Pearlson GD, Reese HE, et al. Augmentation of behavioral therapy with D-cycloserine for obsessive compulsive disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2008;165(3):335–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Kushner MG, Kim SW, Donahue C, Thuras P, Adson D, Kotlyar M, et al. D-cycloserine augmented exposure therapy for obsessive compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;62(8):835–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Storch EA, Murphy TK, Goodman WK, Geffken GR, Lewin AB, Henin A, et al. A preliminary study of D-cycloserine augmentation of cognitive-behavioral therapy in pediatric obsessive compulsive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2010;68(11):1073–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Angold A, Costello EJ, Erkanli A. Comorbidity. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 1999;40(1):57–89.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Kendall PC, Brady EU, Verduin TL. Comorbidity in childhood anxiety disorders and treatment outcome. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2001;40(7):787–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. McClure EB, Monk CS, Nelson EE, Parrish JM, Adler A, Blair RJ, et al. Abnormal attention modulation of fear circuit function in pediatric generalized anxiety disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2007;64(1):97–106.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Research Unit on Pediatric Psychopharmacology. Fluvoxamine for the treatment of anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: the research unit on pediatric psychopharmacology anxiety study group. N Engl J Med. 2001;344(17): 1279–85.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Research Unit on Pediatric Psychopharmacology. Treatment of pediatric anxiety disorders: an open label extension of the research units on pediatric psychopharmacology anxiety study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2002;12(3): 175–88.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Birmaher B, Axelson DA, Monk K, Kalas C, Clark DB, Ehmann M, et al. Fluoxetine for the treatment of childhood anxiety disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2003;42(4):415–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Beidel DC, Turner SM, Sallee FR, Ammerman RT, Crosby LA, Pathak S. SET-C versus fluoxetine in the treatment of childhood social phobia. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46(12):1622–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Wagner KD, Berard R, Stein MB, Wetherhold E, Carpenter DJ, Perera P, et al. A multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of paroxetine in children and adolescents with social anxiety disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004;61(11):1153–62.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Rynn MA, Siqueland L, Rickels K. Placebo-controlled trial of sertraline in the treatment of children with generalized anxiety disorder. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158(12):2008–14.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Black B, Uhde TW. Psychiatric characteristics of children with selective mutism: a pilot study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1995;34(7):847–56.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Leonard HL, Dow S. Selective mutism. In: March JS, editor. Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. New York: Guilford; 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Dummit 3rd ES, Klein RG, Tancer NK, Asche B, Martin J. Fluoxetine treatment of children with selective mutism: an open trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996;35(5):615–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Carlson JS, Kratochwill TR, Johnston HF. Sertraline treatment of 5 children diagnosed with selective mutism: a single-case research trial. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 1999;9(4):293–306.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Black B, Uhde TW. Treatment of elective mutism with fluoxetine: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1994;33(7):1000–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Gittelman-Klein R, Klein D. Controlled imipramine treatment of school phobia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1971;25(3):204–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. Klein RG, Koplewicz HS, Kanner A. Imipramine treatment of children with separation anxiety disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1992;31(1):21–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Bernstein GA, Borchardt CM, Perwien AR, Crosby RD, Kushner MG, Thuras PD, et al. Imipramine plus cognitive-behavioral therapy in the treatment of school refusal. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2000;39(3):276–83.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Berney T, Kolvin I, Bhate SR, Garside RF, Jeans J, Kay B, et al. School phobia: a therapeutic trial with clomipramine and short-term outcome. Br J Psychiatry. 1981;138:110–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Benjamin RS, Costello EJ, Warren M. Anxiety disorders in a pediatric sample. J Anxiety Disord. 1990;4(4):293–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Fairbanks JM, Pine DS, Tancer NK, Dummit 3rd ES, Kentgen LM, Martin J, et al. Open fluoxetine treatment of mixed anxiety disorders in children and adolescents. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 1997;7(1):17–29.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Merikangus KR, Walters EE. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(6):593–603.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Lepola U, Leinonen E, Koponen H. Citalopram in the treatment of early-onset panic disorder and school phobia. Pharmacopsychiatry. 1996;29(1):30–2.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Masi G, Toni C, Mucci M, Millepiedi S, Mata B, Perugi G. Paroxetine in child and adolescent outpatients with panic disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2001;11(2):151–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Cohen JA, Mannarino AP, Perel JM, Staron V. A pilot randomized controlled trial of combined trauma-focused CBT and sertraline for childhood PTSD symptoms. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46(7):811–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Robb AS, Cueva JE, Sporn J, Yang R, Vanderburg DG. Sertraline treatment of children and adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2010;20(6):463–71.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Robert R, Tcheung WJ, Rosenberg L, Rosenberg M, Mitchell C, Villarreal C, et al. Treating thermally injured children suffering symptoms of acute stress with imipramine and fluoxetine: a randomized, double-blind study. Burns. 2008;34(7):919–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Seedat S, Stein DJ, Ziervogel C, Middleton T, Kaminer D, Emsley RA, et al. Comparison of response to a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor in children, adolescents, and adults with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2002;12(1):37–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Robert R, Blakeney PE, Villareal C, Rosenberg L, Meyer 3rd WJ. Imipramine treatment in pediatric burn patients with symptoms of acute stress disorder: a pilot study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1999;38(7):873–82.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Harmon RJ, Riggs PD. Clonidine for posttraumatic stress disorder in preschool children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996;35(9):1247–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Horrigan JP. Guanfacine for PTSD nightmares. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1996;35(8):975–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Famularo R, Kinscherff R, Fenton T. Propranolol treatment for childhood posttraumatic stress disorder, acute type. A pilot study. Am J Dis Child. 1988;142(11):1244–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Strawn JR, Geracioti Jr TD. Noradrenergic dysfunction and the psychopharmacology of posttraumatic stress disorder. Depress Anxiety. 2008;25(3):260–71.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Taylor FB, Lowe K, Thompson C, McFall MM, Peskind ER, Kanter ED, et al. Daytime prazosin reduces psychological distress to trauma specific cues in civilian posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2006;59(7):577–81.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Raskind MA, Peskind ER, Hoff DJ, Hart KL, Holmes HA, Warren D, et al. A parallel group placebo controlled study of prazosin for trauma nightmares and sleep disturbance in combat veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;61(8):928–34.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Brkanac Z, Pastor JF, Storck M. Prazosin in PTSD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2003;42(4):384–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Fraleigh LA, Hendratta VD, Ford JD, Connor DF. Prazosin for the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder-related nightmares in an adolescent male. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2009;19(4):475–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Strawn JR, DelBello MP, Geracioti Jr TD. Prazosin treatment of an adolescent with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2009;19(5):599–600.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Horrigan JP, Barnhill LJ. Risperidone and PTSD in boys. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1999;11:126–7.

    Google Scholar 

  95. Loof D, Grimley P, Kuller F, Martin A, Shonfield L. Carbamazepine for PTSD. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1995;34(6):703–4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Steiner H, Saxena KS, Carrion V, Khanzode LA, Silverman M, Chang K. Divalproex sodium for the treatment of PTSD and conduct disordered youth: a pilot randomized controlled clinical trial. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev. 2007;38(3):183–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Cohen JA, Bukstein O, Walter H, Benson SR, Chrisman A, Farchione TR, et al. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2010;49(4):414–30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Connolly SD, Bernstein GA, Work Group on Quality Issues. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with anxiety disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2007;46(2):267–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Practice parameter on the use of psychotropic medication in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2009;48(9):961–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  100. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2012;51(1):98–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  101. Pine DS. Treating children and adolescents with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors: how long is appropriate? J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 2002;12(3):189–203.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. March JS, Frances A, Carpenter D, Kahn DA. The expert consensus guideline series: treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 1997;58 Suppl 4:1–72.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Bernstein GA, Garfinkel BD, Borchardt CM. Comparative studies of pharmacotherapy for school refusal. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1990;29(5):773–81.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Simeon JG, Ferguson HB. Alprazolam effects in children with anxiety disorders. Can J Psychiatry. 1987;32(7):570–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Graae F, Milner J, Rozzotto L, Klein RG. Clonazepam in childhood anxiety disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 1994;33(3):372–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Child Division, Department of Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA

    Justin W. Mohatt & John T. Walkup

  2. Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA

    Alex Eve Keller

Authors
  1. Justin W. Mohatt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Alex Eve Keller
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. John T. Walkup
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Justin W. Mohatt .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. , Education and Training, Kennedy Krieger Institute, 3901 Greenspring Avenue, Baltimore, 21211, Maryland, USA

    Roma A. Vasa

  2. Fordham University, East Fordham Road 441, Bronx, 10458, New York, USA

    Amy Krain Roy

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Mohatt, J.W., Keller, A.E., Walkup, J.T. (2013). Psychopharmacology of Pediatric Anxiety Disorders. In: Vasa, R., Roy, A. (eds) Pediatric Anxiety Disorders. Current Clinical Psychiatry. Humana Press, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6599-7_14

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6599-7_14

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-6598-0

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-6599-7

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation