Abstract
Violence between intimate partners (PV) is widely regarded as a crime committed by men against women, and this paradigm has informed policy on criminal justice interventions for the past three decades. Having found symmetry across gender in many aspects of PV, most scholars now question this paradigm and argue for more gender inclusive, evidence-based policies. Still, while many feminists now acknowledge gender symmetry in overall rates of perpetration, few would agree that women also engage in the more serious pattern of PV known as battering. This article explores the extent to which current law enforcement responses and training are based on credible, up-to-date research. We first explore findings from the largest partner violence research project ever undertaken, the Partner Abuse State of Knowledge Project (PASK), to determine what the empirical data suggests about the extent, causes and consequences of battering. We then report on our national study on police training manuals in 16 states with so-called dominant aggressor laws. Our findings indicate that even when framed as the more serious crime of battering, PV is mostly symmetrical across gender; yet current law enforcement training continues to reflect the prevailing gender paradigm and support practices that seriously discount violence perpetrated by women.
Keywords
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsNotes
- 1.
This term has little to do with any individual researcher’s commitment to gender equality, their allegiance to one political party or another, or how they vote; rather, it indicates a particular orientation toward partner violence (PV) research in which the role of gender is considered primary over all others (Winstok, in press).
References
Adams, S. R., & Freeman, D. R. (2002). Women who are violent: Attitudes and beliefs of professionals working in the field of domestic violence. Military Medicine, 167(6), 445–450.
Archer, J. (2000). Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 126(5), 651–680.
Archer, J. (2004). Sex differences in aggression in real-world settings: A meta-analytic review. Review of General Psychology, 8(4), 291–322.
Archer, J. (2006). Cross-cultural differences in physical aggression between partners: A social-role analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(2), 133–153.
Bartholomew, K., & Cobb, R. J. (2010). Conceptualizing relationship violence as a dyadic process. In L. M. Horowitz & S. Strack (Eds.), Handbook of interpersonal psychology: Theory, research, assessment, and therapeutic intervention (pp. 307–330). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Belknap, J. (1995). Law enforcement officers’ attitudes about the appropriate responses to woman battering. International Review of Victimology, 4(1), 47–62.
Bruno v. Codd, 396 N.Y.S. 2d 974, 976–77 (Sup.Ct. 1977).
Buzawa, E., & Hotaling, G. (2000). The police response to domestic violence calls for assistance in three Massachusetts towns: Final report. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
Capaldi, D. M., Knoble, N. B., Shortt, J. W., & Kim, H. K. (2012). A systematic review of risk factors for intimate partner violence. Partner Abuse, 3(2), 231–280.
Carney, M., & Barner, J. (2012). Prevalence of partner abuse: Rates of emotional abuse and control. Partner Abuse, 3(3).
Cormier, N. S., & Woodoworth, M. R. (2008). Do you see what I see? The influence of gender stereotypes on student and Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) perceptions of violent same-sex and opposite sex relationships. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment, and Trauma, 17(4), 478–505.
Dalton, C., Drozd, L., & Wong, F. (2006). Navigating custody & visitation evaluations in cases with domestic violence: A judge’s guide. Reno, NV: University of Nevada: NCJFCJ.
Davis, R. (2008). Domestic violence: Intervention, prevention, policies, and solutions. Boca Raton, FL: CRC.
Dekeseredy, W. S. (2011). Feminist contributions to understanding woman abuse: Myths, controversies and realities. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16(4), 297–302.
DeLeon-Granados, W., Wells, W., & Binsbacher, R. (2006). Arresting developments: Trends in female arresets for domestic violence and proposed explanations. Violence Against Women, 12(4), 355–371.
Desmarais, S. L., Reeves, K. A., Nicholls, T. L., Telford, R., & Fiebert, M. S. (2012a). Prevalence of physical violence in intimate relationships—Part 1: Rates of male and female victimization. Partner Abuse, 3(2), 140–169.
Desmarais, S. L., Reeves, K. A., Nicholls, T. L., Telford, R., & Fiebert, M. S. (2012b). Prevalence of physical violence in intimate relationships—Part 2: Rates of male and female perpetration. Partner Abuse, 3(2), 170–198.
Dragiewicz, M. (2008). Patriarchy reasserted: Fathers’ rights and anti-VAWA activism. Feminist Criminology, 3(2), 121–144.
Dutton, D. (1994). Patriarchy and wife assault: The ecological fallacy. Violence and Victims, 9(2), 167–182.
Dutton, D. (2006). Rethinking domestic violence. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.
Dutton, D. (2011). The case against the role of gender in intimate partner violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17, 99–104.
Dutton, D., Corvo, K., & Hamel, J. (2009). The gender paradigm in domestic violence research and practice. Part II: The information website of the American Bar Association. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14, 30–38.
Dutton, D., Hamel, J., & Aaronson, J. (2010). The gender paradigm in family court processes: Re-balancing the scales of justice from biased social science. Journal of Child Custody, 7(1).
Dutton, D., & Nicholls, T. (2005). The gender paradigm in domestic violence research and theory: The conflict of theory and data. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(6), 680–714.
Eitle, D. (2005). The influence of mandatory arrest policies, police organizational characteristics, and situational variables on the probability of arrest in domestic violence cases. Crime & Delinquency, 51, 573–597.
Federal Bureau of Investigation. (1979–2003). Uniform crime reports. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
Felson, R. (2002). Violence and gender reexamined. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Felson, R., & Outlaw, M. (2007). The control motive and marital violence. Violence and Victims, 22(4), 387–407.
Felson, R., & Pare, P. (2007). Does the criminal justice system treat domestic violence and sexual assault offenders leniently? Justice Quarterly, 3, 435–459.
Finn, M. A., & Bettis, P. (2006). Punitive action or gentle persuasion: Exploring police officers’ justifications for using dual arrest in domestic violence cases. Violence Against Women, 12, 268–287.
Finn, M., & Stalans, L. (1997). The influence of gender and mental state on police decisions in domestic assault cases. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 24(2), 157–176.
Frieze, I. (2004). Hurting the one you love: Violence in relationships. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Gelles, R. J. (1999). The missing persons of domestic violence: Battered men (pp. 18–22). Autumn: The Women’s Quarterly.
Gerber, G. L. (1991). Gender stereotypes and power: Perceptions of the roles in violent marriages. Sex Roles, 24, 439–458.
Hamberger, L. K. (2005). Men’s and women’s use of intimate partner violence in clinical samples: Toward a gender-sensitive analysis. Violence and Victims, 20(2), 131–151.
Hamberger, K., Lohr, J., Bonge, D., & Tolin, D. (1997). An empirical classification of motivations for domestic violence. Violence Against Women, 3, 401–423.
Hamel, J. (2005). Gender-inclusive treatment of intimate partner abuse: A comprehensive approach. New York: Springer.
Hamel, J. (2008). Intimate partner and family abuse: A casebook of gender inclusive therapy. New York: Springer.
Hamel, J. (2011). In dubious battle: The politics of mandatory arrest and dominant aggressor laws. Partner Abuse, 2(2), 224–245.
Hamel, J., Desmarais, S. L., & Nicholls, T. L. (2007). Perceptions of motives in intimate partner violence: Expressive versus coercive violence. Violence and Victims, 22(5), 563–576.
Hamel, J., Desmarais, S. L., Nicholls, T. L., Malley-Morrison, K., & Aaronson, J. (2009). Domestic violence and child custody: Are family court professionals’ decisions based on erroneous beliefs? Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 1(2), 37–52.
Hamel, J., & Nicholls, T. (2007). Family interventions in domestic violence: A handbook of gender-inclusive theory and treatment. New York: Springer.
Hamilton, M., & Worthen, M. G. (2011). Sex disparities in arrest outcomes for domestic violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26(8), 1159–1578.
Hansen, M., & Harway, M. (1995). Intervening with violent families: Directions for future generations of therapists. In M. Hansen & M. Harway (Eds.), Battering and family therapy (pp. 227–251). Newbury Park, NJ: Sage.
Harris, R. J., & Cook, C. A. (1994). Attributions about spouse abuse: It matters who the batters and victims are. Sex Roles, 30, 553–565.
Henning, K., & Feder, L. (2005). Criminal prosecution of domestic violence offenses: An investigation of factors predictive of court outcomes. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 32(6), 612–642.
Hines, D. (in press). Extent and implications of the presentation of false facts by domestic violence agencies in the United States. Partner Abuse.
Hirschel, D., & Buzawa, E. (2002). Understanding the context of dual arrest with directions for future research. Violence Against Women, 8(12), 1449–1473.
Hirschel, D., & Buzawa, E. (2009, October). An examination of the factors that impact the likelihood of arrest in intimate partner violence cases. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Justice Research Statistical Association, St. Louis.
Hotaling, G., & Buzawa, E. (2003). Foregoing criminal justice assistance: The non-reporting of new incidents of abuse in a court sample of domestic violence victims. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
Hotaling, G., & Sugarman, D. (1986). An analysis of risk markers in husband to wife violence: The current state of knowledge. Violence and Victims, 1, 101–122.
Johnson, M. P. (2006). Conflict and control: Gender symmetry and asymmetry in domestic violence. Violence Against Women, 12, 1003–1018.
Johnson, M. P. (2008). A typology of domestic violence. Boston: Northeastern University Press.
Johnson, M. (2011). Gender and types of intimate partner violence: A response to antifeminist literature review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16(4), 290–296.
Kimmel, M. (2002). “Gender symmetry” in domestic violence: A substantive and methodological research review. Violence Against Women, 8, 1332–1363.
Lambert, T., & Winstok, Z. (in press). Partner abuse worldwide. Partner Abuse, 4(1).
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., & McCullars, A. (2012). Motivations for men and women’s intimate partner violence perpetration: A comprehensive review. Partner Abuse, 3(4) (in press).
Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., Misra, T. A., Selwyn, C., & Rohling, M. L. (2012). Rates of bi-directional versus uni-directional intimate partner violence across samples, sexual orientations, and race/ethnicities: A comprehensive review. Partner Abuse, 3(2), 199–230.
Laroche, D. (2005). Aspects of the context and consequences of domestic violence: Situational couple violence and intimate terrorism in Canada in 1999. Institut de la statistique du Quebec. Available at: www.stat.gouv.qc.ca.
Lawrence, E., Orengo-Aguavo, R., Langer, A., & Brock, R. (2012). The impact of partner abuse on partners. Partner Abuse, 3(4).
Lawrence, E., Yoon, J., Langer, A., & Ro, E. (2009). Is psychological aggression as detrimental as physical aggression? The independent effects of psychological aggression on depression and anxiety symptoms. Violence and Victims, 24(1), 20–35.
Leisring, P., Dowd, L., & Rosenbaum, A. (2005). Abuse histories and symptoms of posttraumatic stress in partner-aggressive women. Family Violence & Sexual Assault Bulletin, 21(1), 5–12.
Maiuro, R., & Eberle, J. (2008). State standards for domestic violence perpetrator treatment: Current status, trends and recommendations. Violence and Victims, 23(2), 133–155.
Medeiros, R., & Straus, M. (2007). Risk factors for physical violence between dating partners: Implications for gender-inclusive prevention and treatment of family violence. In J. Hamel & T. Nicholls (Eds.), Family interventions in domestic violence: A handbook of gender-inclusive theory and treatment (pp. 59–86). New York: Springer.
Miller, S. L. (2001). The paradox of women arrested for domestic violence: Criminal justice professionals and service providers respond. Violence Against Women, 7, 1339–1376.
Morley, R., & Mullender, A. (1992). Hype or hope? The importance of pro-arrest policies and batterers’ programmes from North America to Britain as key measures for preventing violence against women in the home. International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family, 6(2), 265–288.
Muller, R., Nicholls, T., Desmarais, S., & Hamel, J. (2009). Do judicial responses to restraining order requests discriminate against male victims? Journal of Family Violence, 24, 625–637.
NCADV. (2012). State coalition list. Retrieved June 19, 2012 from: http://www.ncadv.org/resources/StateCoalitionList.php.
Pagelow, M. (1981). Woman-battering: Victims and their experiences. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Pattavina, A., Hirschel, D., Buzawa, E., Faggiani, D., & Bentley, H. (2007). A comparison of the police response to heterosexual versus same-sex intimate partner violence. Violence Against Women, 13, 374–394.
Pence, E., & Dasgupta, S. (2006). Re-examining “Battering”: Are all acts of violence against intimate partners the same? West Chester, PA: Praxis International Inc.
Poorman, P. B., Seelau, E. P., & Seelau, S. M. (2003). Perceptions of domestic abuse in same-sex relationships and implications for criminal justice and mental health responses. Violence and Victims, 18(6), 201–204.
Ragatz, L., & Russell, B. (2010). Sex, sexual orientation and sexism: What influence do these factors have on verdicts in a crime of passion case? The Journal of Social Psychology, 150(4), 341–360.
Renauer, B., & Henning, K. (2005). Investigating intersections between gender and intimate violence recidivism. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 41(4), 99–124.
Renzetti, C. M., & Miley, C. H. (1996). Violence in gay and lesbian domestic partnerships. New York: Huntington Park Press.
Russell, B. L., Ragatz, L. L., & Kraus, S. W. (2009). Does ambivalent sexism influence verdicts for heterosexual and homosexual defendants in a self-defense case? Journal of Family Violence, 24, 145–157.
Russell, B. L., Ragatz, L., & Kraus, S. (2010). Self-defense and legal decision making: The role of defendant and victim gender and gender neutral expert testimony of the battered partner’s syndrome. Partner Abuse, 1(4), 399–418.
Scott v. Hart. (1976). C76-2395 (N.D. Cal.).
Seelau, E. P., & Seelau, S. M. (2003). Gender and role-based perceptions of domestic abuse: Does sexual orientation matter? Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 21, 199–214.
Seelau, S. M., & Seelau, E. P. (2005). Gender-role stereotypes and perceptions of heterosexual, gay, and lesbian domestic violence. Journal of Family Violence, 20(6), 363–371.
Sherman, L. W., & Berk, R. A. (1984). The specific deterrent effects of arrest for domestic assault. American Sociological Review, 49, 261–272.
Shernock, S., & Rusell, B. (2012). Gender and racial/ethnic differences in criminal justice decision making in intimate partner violence cases. Partner Abuse, 3(4).
Simon, T., Anderson, M., Thompson, M., Crosby, A., Shelley, G., & Sacks, J. (2001). Attitudinal acceptance of intimate partner violence among US adults. Violence and Victims, 16, 115–126.
Simpson, L., Doss, B., Wheeler, J., & Christensen, A. (2007). Relationship violence among couples seeking therapy: Common couple violence or battering? Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 33(2), 270–283.
Sorenson, S., & Taylor, C. (2005). Female aggression toward male intimate partners: An examination of social norms in a community-based sample. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 78–96.
Stark, E. (1996). Mandatory arrest of batterers: A reply to critics. In Schlesinger Buzawa & Buzawa (Eds.), Do arrests and restraining orders work? (pp. 115–149). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Stark, E. (2007). Coercive control: The entrapment of women in personal life. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Stith, S., McCollum, E., Amanor-Boadu, Y., & Smith, D. (2012). Systemic perspectives on intimate partner violence treatment. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 38(1), 220–240.
Straus, M. (1993). Physical assaults by wives: A major social problem. In R. Gelles & D. Loseke (Eds.), Current controversies on family violence (pp. 67–87). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Straus, M. (1994). Beating the devil out of them: Corporal punishment in American families. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Lexington Books.
Straus, M. (1999). The controversy over domestic violence by women: A methodological, theoretical, and sociology of science analysis. In X. Arriaga & S. Oskamp (Eds.), Violence in intimate relationships (pp. 17–44). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Straus, M. (2005). Women’s violence toward men is a serious social problem. In D. R. Loseke, R. J. Gelles, & M. M. Cavanaugh (Eds.), Current controversies on family violence (2nd ed., pp. 55–77). Newbury Park: Sage Publications.
Straus, M. (2008). Dominance and symmetry in partner violence by male and female university students in 32 nations. Children and Youth Services Review, 30(3), 252–275.
Straus, M., Gelles, R. J., & Steinmetz, S. K. (2006 [1980]). Behind closed doors: Violence in the American family. Garden City, NY: Doubleday/Anchor Books (Reissued by Transaction Publishing, 2006 [New Brunswick, NJ], with a new foreword by R. J. Gelles and M. A. Straus).
Straus, M., Kaufman-Kantor, G., & Moore, D. (1997). Change in cultural norms approving marital violence from 1968 to 1994. In G. Kaufman Kantor & J. Jasinski (Eds.), Out of the darkness: Contemporary perspectives on family violence (pp. 3–16). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Sugarman, D., & Frankel, S. (1996). Patriarchal ideology and wife-assault: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Family Violence, 11(1), 13–39.
Swan, S., Gambone, L., Caldwell, J., Sullivan, T., & Snow, D. (2008). A review of research on women’s use of violence with male intimate partners. Violence and Victims, 32(3), 301.
Thurman v. City of Torrington, DC, 595 F.Supp.1521 (D. Conn. 1984).
Tjaden, P., & Thoennes, N. (2000). Extent, nature, and consequences of intimate partner violence. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice.
U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. (1998). National Crime Surveys: National sample, 1973–1983. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census (6 ICPSRth ed.). Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research.
United Nations Development Programme. (1997). Human development report. New York: Oxford University Press.
Wells, W., & DeLeon-Granados, W. (2002). Analysis of unexamined issues in the intimate partner homicide decline: Race, quality of victim services, offender accountability, and system accountability (Final report, 46 pp.). U.S. Department of Justice.
Winstok, Z. (2012). Partner violence: A new paradigm for understanding conflict. New York: Springer.
Winstok, Z. (in press). What can we learn from the controversy over the role of gender in partner violence? Partner Abuse
Yllo, K. (1988). Political and methodological debates in wife abuse research. In K. Yllo & M. Bograd (Eds.), Feminist perspectives on wife abuse (pp. 28–50). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank student research assistants Megan Faulkner, Rachel Jensen, and Patrice Williams for their assistance in coding police training manuals.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Hamel, J., Russell, B.L. (2013). The Partner Abuse State of Knowledge Project: Implications for Law Enforcement Responses to Domestic Violence. In: Russell, B. (eds) Perceptions of Female Offenders. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5871-5_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5871-5_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-5870-8
Online ISBN: 978-1-4614-5871-5
eBook Packages: Humanities, Social Sciences and LawSocial Sciences (R0)