Skip to main content

The Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Stress Response

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

In the first chapter, we provided the following working definition of the stress response: “Stress is a physiological response that serves as a mechanism of mediation linking any given stressor to its target-organ effect.” By viewing the phenomenology of stress within the context of a “linking” mechanism, we can answer one of the most critical questions in psychosomatic medicine, that is, through what mechanisms can stressor stimuli, such as life events, lead to disease and dysfunction? The response to that query will be addressed within the next two chapters.

It is highly dishonorable for a Reasonable Soul to live in so Divinely built a Mansion as the Body she resides in, altogether unacquainted with the exquisite structure of it.

Robert Boyle

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD   129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Aggleton, J. P. (Ed.). (1992). The Amygdala. New York, NY: Wiley-Liss.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, M. (1970). Feelings and emotions. New York, NY: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnold, M. (1984). Memory and the brain. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Axelrod, J., & Reisine, T. (1984). Stress hormones. Science, 224, 452–459.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cannon, W. B. (1914). The emergency function of the adrenal medulla in pain and in the major emotions. American Journal of Physiology, 33, 356–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cannon, W. B. (1953). Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear, and rage. Boston, MA: Branford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cannon, W. B., & Paz, D. (1911). Emotional stimulation of adrenal secretion. American Journal of Physiology, 28, 64–70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carruthers, M., & Taggart, P. (1973). Vagotonicity of violence. British Medical Journal, 3, 384–389.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cassel, J. (1974). Psychosocial processes and stress: The behavioral sciences and preventive medicine. Washington, DC: Public Health Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, F., & Lazarus, R. S. (1979). Coping with the stresses of illness. In G. Stone, F. Cohen, & N. Adler (Eds.), Health psychology (pp. 217–254). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Corson, S., & Corson, E. (1971). Psychosocial influences on renal function: Implications for human pathophysiology. In L. Levi (Ed.), Society, stress, and disease (Vol. 1, pp. 338–351). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cullinan, W., Herman, J. P., Helmreich, D., & Watson, S. (1995). A neuroanatomy of stress. In M. J. Friedman, D. Charney, & A. Deutch (Eds.), Neurobiological and clinical consequences of stress (pp. 3–26). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott-Raven.

    Google Scholar 

  • Entringer, S., Kumsta, R., Hellhammer, D. H., Wadhwa, P. D., & Wust, S. (2009). Prenatal exposure to maternal psychosocial stress and HPA axis regulation in young adults. Hormones and Behavior, 55, 292–298.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Everly, G. S., Jr. (1978). The Organ Specificity Score as a measure of psychophysiological stress reactivity. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park.

    Google Scholar 

  • Everly, G. S., Jr. (1979a). Strategies for coping with stress: An assessment scale. Washington, DC: Office of Health Promotion, Department of Health and Human Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Everly, G. S., Jr. (1986). A “biopsychosocial analysis” of psychosomatic disease. In T. Millon & G. Kierman (Eds.), Contemporary directions in psychopathology (pp. 535–551). New York, NY: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Everly, G. S., Jr., & Benson, H. (1989). Disorders of arousal and the relaxation response. International Journal of Psychosomatics, 36, 15–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Everly, G. S., Jr., Davy, J. A., Smith, K. J., Lating, J. M., & Nucifora, F. C., Jr. (2011). A defining aspect of human resilience in the workplace: A structural modeling approach. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 5(2), 98–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Everly, G. S., Jr., Smith, K. J., & Lating, J. M. (2009). A rationale for cognitively-based resilience and psychological first aid (PFA) training: A structural modeling analysis. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health, 11(4), 249–262.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Florian, J. P., & Pawelczyk, J. A. (2010). Non-esterified fatty acids increase arterial pressure via central sympathetic activation in humans. Clinical Science, 118, 61–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foley, P., & Kirschbaum, C. (2010). Human hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis responses to acute psychosocial stress in laboratory settings. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 91–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Folkow, B., & Neil, E. (1971). Circulation. London: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankenhaeuser, M. (1980). Psychoneuroendocrine approaches to the study of stressful person-environment transactions. In H. Selye (Ed.), Selye’s guide to stress research (pp. 46–70). New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ganong, W. F. (1997). Review of medical physiology (18th ed.). Stamford, CT: Appleton & Lange.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E. (1957). Autonomic imbalance and the hypothalamus. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E. (1958a). The physiological basis of neuromuscular relaxation. Archives of Internal Medicine, 102, 392–399.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E. (1958b). The influence of curare on hypothalamic excitability and the electroencephalogram. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 10, 697–703.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E. (1964a). Motion and emotion. Psychological Review, 71, 457–472.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E. (1964b). Sympathetic reactivity in hypertension. Acta Neurovegetative, 26, 35–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E. (1965). The neurophysiological basis of anxiety. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 8, 488–515.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E. (1967). Principles of autonomic-somatic integrations. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E. (1968). Central nervous system tuning and its implications for neuropsychiatry. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 147, 148–162.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E. (1969). Further studies on the physiology and pathophysiology of the tuning of the central nervous system. Psychosomatics, 10, 94–104.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gellhorn, E., & Loofburrow, G. (1963). Emotions and emotional disorders. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gevarter, W. (1978).Psychotherapy and the brain. Unpublished paper, NASA, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gifford, S., & Gunderson, J. G. (1970). Cushing’s disease as a psychosomatic disorder: A selective review. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine, 13, 169–221.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Girdano, D., Dusek, D., & Everly, G. (2009). Controlling stress and tension. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Benjamin Cummings.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guyenet, P. G. (2006). The sympathetic control of blood pressure. Nature Reviews/Neuroscience, 7, 335–346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J. E. (2011). Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology (12th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harper, H. A. (1975). Review of physiological chemistry. Los Altos, CA: Lange.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hassett, J. (1978). A primer of psychophysiology. San Francisco, CA: W. H. Freeman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heim, C. & Nemeroff, C. B. (2009). Neurobiology of posttraumatic stress disorder. CNS Spectrum, 14(1) (Suppl 1), 13–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry, J. P., & Ely, D. (1976). Biologic correlates of psychosomatic illness. In R. Grenen & S. Galay (Eds.), Biological foundations of psychiatry (pp. 945–986). New York, NY: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Henry, J. P., & Stephens, P. (1977). Stress, health, and the social environment. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hess, W. (1957). The functional organization of the diencephalon. New York, NY: Grune &Stratton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, R. H., & Spalding, J. M. (1974). Disorders of the autonomic nervous system. Philadelphia: Davis.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kopin, L. (1976). Catecholamines, adrenal hormones, and stress. Hospital Practice, 11, 49–55.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krishnan, V., & Nestler, E. J. (2008). The molecular neurobiology of depression. Nature, 455(16), 894–902.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lachman, S. (1972). Psychosomatic disorders: A behavioristic interpretation. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lang, I. M. (1975). Limbic involvement in the vagosympathetic arterial pressor response of the rat. Unpublished master’s thesis, Temple University, Philadelphia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. (1966). Psychological stress and the coping process. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. (1982). Thoughts on the relations between emotions and cognition. American Psychologist, 37, 1019–1024.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. (2006). Stress and Emotion: A New Synthesis. New York, NY: Springer Publishing Company, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Blanc, J. (1976, July). The role of catecholamines in adaptation to chronic and acute stress. Paper presented at the proceedings of the International Symposium on Catecholamines and Stress, Bratislava, Czechoslovakia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levi, L. (1972). Psychosocial stimuli, psychophysiological reactions and disease. Acta Medico Scandinavica (entire Suppl. 528).

    Google Scholar 

  • Lomax, A. E., Sharkey, K. A., & Furness, J. B. (2010). The participation of the sympathetic innervation of the gastrointestinal tract in disease states. Neurogastroenterology & Motility, 22, 7–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lundberg, U., & Forsman, L. (1978). Adrenal medullary and adrenal cortical responses to under-stimulation and overstimulation (Report No. 541). Stockholm: Department of Psychology, University of Stockholm.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macfarlane, D. P., Forbes, S., & Walker, B. R. (2008). Glucocoticoids and fatty acid metabolism in humans: fuelling fat redistribution in the metabolic syndrome. Journal of Endocrinology, 197, 189–204.

    Google Scholar 

  • MacLean, P. D. (1949). Psychosomatic disease and the “visceral brain. Psychosomatic Medicine, 11, 338–353.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacLean, P. D. (1975). On the evolution of three mentalities. Man-Environment System, 5, 213–994.

    Google Scholar 

  • Makara, G., Palkovits, M., & Szentagothal, J. (1980). The endocrine hypothalamus and the ­hormonal response to stress. In H. Selye (Ed.), Selye’s guide to stress research (pp. 280–337). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

    Google Scholar 

  • Malmo, R. B. (1975). On emotions, needs, and our archaic brain. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maranon, G. (1924). Contribution a 1’etude de 1’action emotive de 1’ademaline. Revue Francais d’Endrocrinologie, 2, 301–325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, J. W. (1968a). A review of psychendocrine research on the sympathetic–adrenal medullary system. Psychosomatic Medicine, 30, 631–653.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mason, J. W. (1968b). Organization of psychoendocrine mechanisms. Psychosomatic Medicine, 30 (entire P. 2).

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, J. W. (1968c). A review of psychoendocrine research on the pituitary–adrenal–cortical system. Psychosomatic Medicine, 30, 576–607.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mason, J. W. (1972). Organization of psychoendocrine mechanisms: A review and reconsideration of research. In N. Greenfield & R. Sternbach (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology (pp. 3–76). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mason, J. W., Wang, S., Yehuda, R., Bremner, J. D., Riney, S., Lubin, H., & Charney, D. (1995). Some approaches to the study of clinical implications of thyroid alterations in post-traumatic stress disorder. In M. J. Friedman, D. Charney, & A. Deutch (Eds.), Neurobiological, and clinical consequences of stress, (pp. 367–380). Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazeh, H., Paldor, I., & Chen, H. (2012). The endocrine system: Pituitary and adrenal glands. ACS Surgery: Principles and Practice, 1–13

    Google Scholar 

  • McCabe, P., & Schneiderman, N. (1984). Psychophysiologic reactions to stress. In N. Schneiderman & J. Tapp (Eds.), Behavioral medicine (pp. 3–32). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • McCorry, L. K., PhD. (2007). Physiology of the autonomic nervous system. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 71(4), 1–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meichenbaum, D. (1985). Stress innoculation training. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meichenbaum, D., & Jaremko, M. (1983). Stress reduction and prevention. New York: Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, N. E. (1978). Biofeedback and visceral learning. Annual Review of Psychology, 29, 373–404.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, N. E. (1979). General discussion and a review of recent results with paralyzed patients. In R. Gatchel & K. Price (Eds.), Clinical applications of biofeedback (pp. 215–225). Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Millon, T., & Everly, G. S., Jr. (1985). Personality and its disorders. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Millon, T., Grossman, S., Millon, C., Meagher, S., & Ramnath, R. (2004). Personality disorders in modern life. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nauta, W. (1979). Expanding borders of the limbic system concept. In T. Rasmussen & R. Marino (Eds.), Functional neurosurgery (pp. 7–23). New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nauta, W., & Domesick, V. (1982). Neural associations of the limbic system. In A. Beckman (Ed.), Neural substrates of behavior (pp. 3–29). New York: Spectrum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Omer, H., & Everly, G. S., Jr. (1988). Psychological influences on pre-term labor. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145(12), 1507–1513.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Penfield, W. (1975). The mystery of the mind. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ray, C. A. & Carter, J. R. (2010). Effects of aerobic exercise training on sympathetic and renal responses to mental stress in humans. American Journal of Physiology – Heart and Circulatory Physiology, 298, H229–H234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Redmond, D. E. (1979). New and old evidence for the involvement of a brain norepinephrine system in anxiety. In W. Fann, I. Karacan, A. Pikomey, & R. Williams (Eds.), Phenomenology and treatment of anxiety (pp. 153–204). New York: Spectrum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reiman, E., Raichle, M. E., Robins, E., Butler, F. K., Herscovitch, P., Fox, P., & Perlmutter, J. (1986). The application of positron emission tomography to the study of panic disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 469–477.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rochefort, G. J., Rosenberger, J., & Saffran, M. (1959). Depletion of pituitary corticotropin by various stresses and by neurohypophyseal preparations. Journal of Physiology, 146, 105–116.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roldan, E., Alvarez-Pelaez, P., & de Molina, F. (1974). Electrographic study of the amygdaloid defense response. Physiology and Behavior, 13, 779–787.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rossier, J., Bloom, F., & Guillemin, R. (1980). In H. Selye (Ed.), Selye’s guide to stress research (pp. 187–207). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwarz, N. A., Rigby, B. R., La Bounty, P., Shelmadine, B., & Bowden, R. G. (2011). A review of weight control strategies and their effects on the regulation of hormonal balance. Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism, 2011, 1–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Selye, H. (1956). The stress of life. New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Selye, H. (1976). Stress in health and disease. Boston: Butterworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, K. J., Everly, G. S., & Johns, T. (1992, December). A structural modeling analysis of the mediating role of cognitive-affective arousal in the relationship between job stressors and illness among accountants. Paper presented to the Second APA/NIOSH Conference on Occupational Stress, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, K. J., Everly, G. S., & Johns, T. (1993). The role of stress arousal in the dynamics of the stressor-to-illness process among accountants. Contemporary Accounting Research, 9, 432–449.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sowers, J. R., Carlson, H. E., Brautbar, N., & Hershman, J. M. (1977). Effect of dexamethasone on prolactin and TSH responses to TRH and metoclopramide in man. The Journal of Clinical Ednocrinology and Metabolism, 44(2), 237–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sternbach, R. (1966). Principles of psychophysiology: An introductory text and readings. Oxford, England: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Surges, R., Thijs, R. D., Tan, H. L., & Sander, J. W. (2009). Sudden unexpected death in epilepsy: risk factors and potential pathomechanisms. Nature Reviews/Neurology, 5, 492–504.

    Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, S. E. (2006). Tend and befriend: Biobehavioral bases of affiliation under stress. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(6), 273–277.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Usdin, E., Kretnansky, R., & Kopin, L. (1976). Catecholamines and stress. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • van Raalte, D. H., Ouwens, D. M., & Diamant, M. (2009). Novel insights into glucocorticoid-mediated diabetogenic effects: towards expansion of therapeutic options? European Journal of Clinical Investigation, 39(2), 81–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weil, J. (1974). A neurophysiological model of emotional and intentional behavior. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wenger, M. A., Clemens, T., Darsie, M. L., Engel, B. T., Estess, F. M., & Sonnenschien, R. R. (1960). Autonomic response patterns during intravenous infusion of epinephrme and norepinephrine. Psychosomatic Medicine, 22, 294–307.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Widmaier, E. P., Raff, H., & Strang, K. T. (2004). Vander, Sherman, Luciano’s Human Physiology: The Mechanisms of Body Function. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R. B. (1986). Patterns of reactivity and stress. In K. Matthews, R. R. Williams, S. B. Manuck, B. Faulkner, T. Dembroski, T. Detre, & S. M. Weiss (Eds.), Handbook of stress, reactivity, and cardiovascular disease (pp. 109–125). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yehuda, R., Giller, E., Levengood, R., Southwick, S., & Siever, L. (1995). Hypothalamic– pituitary–adrenal-functioning in post-traumatic stress disorder. In M. J. Friedman, D. Charney, & A. Deutch (Eds.), Neurobiological, and clinical consequences of stress (pp. 351–366). Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yuwiler, A. (1976). Stress, anxiety and endocrine function. In R. Grenell & S. Gabay (Eds.), Biological foundations of psychiatry (pp. 889–943). New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmermann, U. S., Buchmann, A. F., Spring, C., Uhr, M., Holsboer, F., & Wittchen, H.-U. (2009). Ethanol administration dampens the prolactin response to psychosocial stress exposure in sons of alcohol-dependent fathers. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 996–1003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Everly, G.S., Lating, J.M. (2013). The Anatomy and Physiology of the Human Stress Response. In: A Clinical Guide to the Treatment of the Human Stress Response. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5538-7_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics