Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Sex Differences in Body Fat Distribution

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Adipose Tissue Biology

Abstract

Although obesity is an important determinant of metabolic disease, specific accumulation of visceral fat is strongly and independently associated with important metabolic alterations such as insulin resistance, hypertension, and dyslipidemia. A marked sex dimorphism and large interindividual variations are observed in fat distribution, and excess accumulation of visceral fat is a strong predictor of cardiometabolic risk in both sexes. However, adipose tissue cellularity and function are distinctly related to obesity in women and men. Women are more likely to store lipids in lower body fat compartments through adipocyte hyperplasia, while visceral adipose tissue depots of men are more prone to manage incoming lipids through adipocyte hypertrophy. Proneness to adipocyte hypertrophy appears as a critical determinant of sex-related and depot-related differences in lipid metabolism and may contribute to the chronic, low-grade inflammation observed in abdominally obese individuals. Regarding the hormonal etiology of abdominal obesity, adipose tissue exposure to active androgens is known to inhibit adipogenesis and lipogenesis. Estrogens have important central effects on energy balance, but may also directly modulate central fat accumulation through direct effects on adipose tissue metabolism. Moreover, a relatively high adipose tissue glucocorticoid reactivation by 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 appears to promote specific accumulation of visceral fat and to alter adipocyte function in humans. Interventions targeting visceral fat accumulation such as moderate weight loss are known to exert beneficial effects on cardiometabolic disease risk.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Ahima RS, Flier JS (2000) Adipose tissue as an endocrine organ. Trends Endocrinol Metab 11(8):327–332

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ailhaud G, Amri E, Bardon S, Barcellini-Couget S, Bertrand B, Catalioto RM, Dani C, Doglio A, Forest C, Gaillard D (1991) Growth and differentiation of regional adipose tissue: molecular and hormonal mechanisms. Int J Obes 15(Suppl 2):87–90

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson LA, McTernan PG, Barnett AH, Kumar S (2001) The effects of androgens and estrogens on preadipocyte proliferation in human adipose tissue: influence of gender and site. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86(10):5045–5051

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson LA, McTernan PG, Harte AL, Barnett AH, Kumar S (2002) The regulation of HSL and LPL expression by DHT and flutamide in human subcutaneous adipose tissue. Diabetes Obes Metab 4(3):209–213

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Andres R (1980) Effect of obesity on total mortality. IJO 4(4):381–386

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Andrew R, Phillips DI, Walker BR (1998) Obesity and gender influence cortisol secretion and metabolism in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83(5):1806–1809

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Armellini F, Zamboni M, Castelli S, Robbi R, Mino A, Todesco T, Bergamo-Andreis IA, Bosello O (1994) Interrelationships between intraabdominal fat and total serum testosterone levels in obese women. Metabolism 43(3):390–395

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arner P (1995) Differences in lipolysis between human subcutaneous and omental adipose tissues. Ann Med 27:435–438

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arner E, Westermark PO, Spalding KL, Britton T, Ryden M, Frisen J, Bernard S, Arner P (2010) Adipocyte turnover: relevance to human adipose tissue morphology. Diabetes 59(1):105–109

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barber TM, Golding SJ, Alvey C, Wass JA, Karpe F, Franks S, McCarthy MI (2008) Global adiposity rather than abnormal regional fat distribution characterizes women with polycystic ovary syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93(3):999–1004

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bashan N, Dorfman K, Tarnovscki T, Harman-Boehm I, Liberty IF, Bluher M, Ovadia S, Maymon-Zilberstein T, Potashnik R, Stumvoll M, Avinoach E, Rudich A (2007) Mitogen-activated protein kinases, inhibitory-kappaB kinase, and insulin signaling in human omental versus subcutaneous adipose tissue in obesity. Endocrinology 148(6):2955–2962

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Basu A (2010) Forecasting distribution of body mass index in the United States: is there more room for growth? Med Decis Making 30(3):E1–E11

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Basu A, Basu R, Shah P, Vella A, Rizza RA, Jensen MD (2001) Systemic and regional free fatty acid metabolism in type 2 diabetes. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 280(6):1000–1006

    Google Scholar 

  • Beaulieu EE, Kelly PA (1990) Hormones: From molecules to disease, 2nd edn. Herman, France

    Google Scholar 

  • Belanger C, Luu-The V, Dupont P, Tchernof A (2002) Adipose tissue intracrinology: potential importance of local androgen/estrogen metabolism in the regulation of adiposity. Horm Metab Res 34(11–12):737–745

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Belanger C, Hould FS, Lebel S, Biron S, Brochu G, Tchernof A (2006) Omental and subcutaneous adipose tissue steroid levels in obese men. Steroids 71(8):674–82

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergstrom RW, Newell-Morris LL, Leonetti DL, Shuman WP, Wahl PW, Fujimoto WY (1990) Association of elevated fasting C-peptide level and increased intra-abdominal fat distribution with development of NIDDM in Japanese-American Men. Diabetes 39:104–111

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bhasin S, Calof OM, Storer TW, Lee ML, Mazer NA, Jasuja R, Montori VM, Gao W, Dalton JT (2006) Drug insight: testosterone and selective androgen receptor modulators as anabolic therapies for chronic illness and aging. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 2(3):146–159

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bjorntorp P, Sjostrom L (1972) The composition and metabolism in vitro of adipose tissue fat cells of different sizes. Eur J Clin Invest 2(2):78–84

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bjorntorp P, Bengtsson C, Blohme G, Jonsson A, Sjostrom L, Tibblin E, Tibblin G, Wilhelmsen L (1971) Adipose tissue fat cell size and number in relation to metabolism in randomly selected middle-aged men and women. Metabolism 20(10):927–935

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blanchette S, Blouin K, Richard C, Dupont P, Luu-The V, Tchernof A (2005) Expression and activity of 20alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C1) in abdominal subcutaneous and omental adipose tissue in women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90(1):264–270

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blouin K, Richard C, Belanger C, Dupont P, Daris M, Laberge P, Luu-The V, Tchernof A (2003) Local androgen inactivation in abdominal visceral adipose tissue. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88(12):5944–5950

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blouin K, Blanchette S, Richard C, Dupont P, Luu-The V, Tchernof A (2005a) Expression and activity of steroid aldoketoreductases 1C in omental adipose tissue are positive correlates of adiposity in women. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 288(2):398–404

    Google Scholar 

  • Blouin K, Despres JP, Couillard C, Tremblay A, Prud’homme D, Bouchard C, Tchernof A (2005b) Contribution of age and declining androgen levels to features of the metabolic syndrome in men. Metabolism 54(8):1034–1040

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blouin K, Richard C, Brochu G, Hould FS, Lebel S, Marceau S, Biron S, Luu-The V, Tchernof A (2006) Androgen inactivation and steroid-converting enzyme expression in abdominal adipose tissue in men. J Endocrinol 191(3):637–649

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blouin K, Boivin A, Tchernof A (2008) Androgens and body fat distribution. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 108(3–5):272–280

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blouin K, Nadeau M, Mailloux J, Daris M, Lebel S, Luu-The V, Tchernof A (2009) Pathways of adipose tissue androgen metabolism in women: depot differences and modulation by adipogenesis. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 296(2):244–255

    Google Scholar 

  • Blouin K, Nadeau M, Perreault M, Veilleux A, Drolet R, Marceau P, Mailloux J, Luu-The V, Tchernof A (2010) Effects of androgens on adipocyte differentiation and adipose tissue explant metabolism in men and women. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 72(2):176–188

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boivin A, Brochu G, Marceau S, Marceau P, Hould FS, Tchernof A (2007) Regional differences in adipose tissue metabolism in obese men. Metabolism 56(4):533–540

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bolinder J, Kager L, Ostman J, Arner P (1983) Differences at the receptor and postreceptor levels between human omental and subcutaneous adipose tissue in the action of insulin on lipolysis. Diabetes 32(2):117–123

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bonetti A, Tirelli F, Catapano A, Dazzi D, Dei CA, Solito F, Ceda G, Reverberi C, Monica C, Pipitone S, Elia G, Spattini M, Magnati G (2008) Side effects of anabolic androgenic steroids abuse. Int J Sports Med 29(8):679–687

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bonora E, Del Prato S, Bonadonna RC, Gulli G, Solini A, Shank ML, Guitas AA, Lancaster JL, Kilcoyne RF, Alyassin AM, DeFronzo RA (1992) Total body fat content and fat topography are associated differently with in vivo glucose metabolism in nonobese and obese nondiabetic women. Diabetes 41:1151–1159

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boullu-Ciocca S, Paulmyer-Lacroix O, Fina F, Ouafik L, Alessi MC, Oliver C, Grino M (2003) Expression of the mRNAs coding for the glucocorticoid receptor isoforms in obesity. Obes Res 11(8):925–929

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boyanov MA, Boneva Z, Christov VG (2003) Testosterone supplementation in men with type 2 diabetes, visceral obesity and partial androgen deficiency. Aging Male 6(1):1–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boyko EJ, Fujimoto WY, Leonetti DL, Newell-Morris L (2000) Visceral adiposity and risk of type 2 diabetes: a prospective study among Japanese Americans. Diabetes Care 23(4):465–471

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bray GA (1985) Complications of obesity. Ann Intern Med 103:1052–1062

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brochu M, Starling RD, Tchernof A, Matthews DE, Poehlman ET (2000) Visceral adipose tissue as an independent correlate of glucose disposal in older postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85:2378–2384

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brochu M, Tchernof A, Dionne IJ, Sites CK, Eltabbakh GH, Sims EA, Poehlman ET (2001) What are the physical characteristics associated with a normal metabolic profile despite a high level of obesity in postmenopausal women? J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86(3):1020–1025

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brochu M, Tchernof A, Turner AN, Ades PA, Poehlman ET (2003) Is there a threshold of visceral fat loss that improves the metabolic profile in obese postmenopausal women? Metabolism 52(5):599–604

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brown LM, Clegg DJ (2010) Central effects of estradiol in the regulation of food intake, body weight, and adiposity. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 122(1–3):65–73

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bujalska IJ, Kumar S, Stewart PM (1997) Does central obesity reflect “Cushing’s disease of the omentum”? Lancet 349(9060):1210–1213

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bujalska IJ, Kumar S, Hewison M, Stewart PM (1999) Differentiation of adipose stromal cells: the roles of glucocorticoids and 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Endocrinology 140(7):3188–3196

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bujalska IJ, Draper N, Michailidou Z, Tomlinson JW, White PC, Chapman KE, Walker EA, Stewart PM (2005) Hexose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase confers oxo-reductase activity upon 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1. J Mol Endocrinol 34(3):675–684

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bujalska IJ, Durrani OM, Abbott J, Onyimba CU, Khosla P, Moosavi AH, Reuser TT, Stewart PM, Tomlinson JW, Walker EA, Rauz S (2007) Characterisation of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 1 in human orbital adipose tissue: a comparison with subcutaneous and omental fat. J Endocrinol 192(2):279–288

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bujalska IJ, Gathercole LL, Tomlinson JW, Darimont C, Ermolieff J, Fanjul AN, Rejto PA, Stewart PM (2008a) A novel selective 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 inhibitor prevents human adipogenesis. J Endocrinol 197(2):297–307

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bujalska IJ, Hewitt KN, Hauton D, Lavery GG, Tomlinson JW, Walker EA, Stewart PM (2008b) Lack of hexose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase impairs lipid mobilization from mouse adipose tissue. Endocrinology 149(5):2584–2591

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carr MC (2003) The emergence of the metabolic syndrome with menopause. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88(6):2404–2411

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carroll TB, Findling JW (2010) The diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 11(2):147–153

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cartier A, Lemieux I, Almeras N, Tremblay A, Bergeron J, Despres JP (2008) Visceral obesity and plasma glucose-insulin homeostasis: contributions of interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93(5):1931–1938

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cartier A, Cote M, Lemieux I, Perusse L, Tremblay A, Bouchard C, Despres JP (2009) Sex differences in inflammatory markers: what is the contribution of visceral adiposity? Am J Clin Nutr 89(5):1307–1314

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cartier A, Cote M, Bergeron J, Almeras N, Tremblay A, Lemieux I, Despres JP (2010) Plasma soluble tumour necrosis factor-alpha receptor 2 is elevated in obesity: specific contribution of visceral adiposity. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 72(3):349–357

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chumlea WC, Knittle JL, Roche AF, Siervogel RM, Webb P (1981) Size and number of adipocytes and measures of body fat in boys and girls 10 to 18 years of age. Am J Clin Nutr 34(9):1791–1797

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cleland WH, Mendelson CR, Simpson ER (1983) Aromatase activity of membrane fractions of human adipose tissue stromal cells and adipocytes. Endocrinology 113(6):2155–2160

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Couillard C, Bergeron N, Prud’homme D, Bergeron J, Tremblay A, Bouchard C, Mauriège P, Després JP (1998) Postprandial triglyceride response in visceral obesity in men. Diabetes 47:953–960

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Couillard C, Gagnon J, Bergeron J, Leon AS, Rao DC, Skinner JS, Wilmore JH, Despres JP, Bouchard C (2000) Contribution of body fatness and adipose tissue distribution to the age variation in plasma steroid hormone concentrations in men: the HERITAGE Family Study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85(3):1026–1031

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Couillard C, Ruel G, Archer WR, Pomerleau S, Bergeron J, Couture P, Lamarche B, Bergeron N (2005) Circulating levels of oxidative stress markers and endothelial adhesion molecules in men with abdominal obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 90(12):6454–6459

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crandall DL, Busler DE, Novak TJ, Weber RV, Kral JG (1998) Identification of estrogen receptor beta RNA in human breast and abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 248(3):523–526

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Crawford SL, Casey VA, Avis NE, McKinlay SM (2000) A longitudinal study of weight and the menopause transition: results from the Massachusetts Women’s Health Study. Menopause 7(2):96–104

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • D’Eon TM, Souza SC, Aronovitz M, Obin MS, Fried SK, Greenberg AS (2005) Estrogen regulation of adiposity and fuel partitioning. Evidence of genomic and non-genomic regulation of lipogenic and oxidative pathways. J Biol Chem 280(43):35983–35991

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Pergola G, Triggiani V, Giorgino F, Cospite MR, Garruti G, Cignarelli M, Guastamacchia E, Giorgino R (1994) The free testosterone to dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate molar ratio as a marker of visceral fat accumulation in premenopausal obese women. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 18(10):659–664

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeNino WF, Tchernof A, Dionne IJ, Toth MJ, Ades PA, Sites CK, Poehlman ET (2001) Contribution of abdominal adiposity to age-related differences in insulin sensitivity and plasma lipids in healthy nonobese women. Diabetes Care 24(5):925–932

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Desbriere R, Vuaroqueaux V, Achard V, Boullu-Ciocca S, Labuhn M, Dutour A, Grino M (2006) 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 mRNA is increased in both visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue of obese patients. Obesity (Silver Spring) 14(5):794–798

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Desmeules A, Couillard C, Tchernof A, Bergeron J, Rankinen T, Leon AS, Rao DC, Skinner JS, Wilmore JH, Després JP, Bouchard C (2003) Post-heparin lipolytic enzyme activities, sex hormones and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) in men and women: the HERITAGE Family Study. Atherosclerosis 171:343–350

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Després JP (1991) Obesity and lipid metabolism: relevance of body fat distribution. Curr Opin Lipidol 2:5–15

    Google Scholar 

  • Després JP (1993) Abdominal obesity as important component of insulin-resistance syndrome. Nutrition 9:452–459

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Després JP (1994a) Dyslipidaemia and obesity. Baillières Clin Endocrinol Metab 8(3):629–660

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Després JP (1994b) Visceral obesity: a component of the insulin resistance – dyslipidemic syndrome. Can J Cardiol 10(Suppl B):17B–22B

    Google Scholar 

  • Despres JP, Lamarche B (1993) Effect of diet and physical activity on adiposity and body fat distribution: implication for the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Nutr Res Rev 6(1):137–159

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Despres JP, Lemieux I (2006) Abdominal obesity and metabolic syndrome. Nature 444(7121):881–887

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Després JP, Nadeau A, Tremblay A, Ferland M, Moorjani S, Lupien PJ, Thériault G, Pinault S, Bouchard C (1989) Role of deep abdominal fat in the association between regional adipose tissue distribution and glucose tolerance in obese women. Diabetes 38:304–309

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Després JP, Moorjani S, Lupien PJ, Tremblay A, Nadeau A, Bouchard C (1990) Regional distribution of body fat, plasma lipoproteins, and cardiovascular disease. Arteriosclerosis 10:497–511

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Després JP, Couillard C, Gagnon J, Bergeron J, Leon AS, Rao DC, Skinner JS, Wilmore JH, Bouchard C (2000) Race, visceral adipose tissue, plasma lipids, and lipoprotein lipase activity in men and women: the Health, Risk Factors, Exercise Training, and Genetics (HERITAGE) family study. Artrerioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 20(8):1932–1938

    Google Scholar 

  • Dieudonne MN, Pecquery R, Boumediene A, Leneveu MC, Giudicelli Y (1998) Androgen receptors in human preadipocytes and adipocytes: regional specificities and regulation by sex steroids. Am J Physiol 274(6 Pt 1):1645–1652

    Google Scholar 

  • Dieudonne MN, Pecquery R, Leneveu MC, Giudicelli Y (2000) Opposite effects of androgens and estrogens on adipogenesis in rat preadipocytes: evidence for sex and site-related specificities and possible involvement of insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma2. Endocrinology 141(2):649–656

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dieudonne MN, Leneveu MC, Giudicelli Y, Pecquery R (2004) Evidence for functional estrogen receptors alpha and beta in human adipose cells: regional specificities and regulation by estrogens. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 286(3):C655–C661

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dinneen S, Alzaid A, Miles J, Rizza R (1993) Metabolic effects of the nocturnal rise in cortisol on carbohydrate metabolism in normal humans. J Clin Invest 92(5):2283–2290

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Divertie GD, Jensen MD, Miles JM (1991) Stimulation of lipolysis in humans by physiological hypercortisolemia. Diabetes 40(10):1228–1232

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dixson A, Dixson B, Anderson M (2005) Sexual selection and the evolution of visually conspicuous sexually dimorphic traits in male monkeys, apes, and human beings. Annu Rev Sex Res 16:1–19

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Djurhuus CB, Gravholt CH, Nielsen S, Mengel A, Christiansen JS, Schmitz OE, Moller N (2002) Effects of cortisol on lipolysis and regional interstitial glycerol levels in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 283(1):E172–E177

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drolet R, Richard C, Sniderman AD, Mailloux J, Fortier M, Huot C, Rheaume C, Tchernof A (2008) Hypertrophy and hyperplasia of abdominal adipose tissues in women. Int J Obes (Lond) 32(2):283–291

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drolet R, Bélanger C, Boivin A, Richard C, Fortier M, Huot C, Légaré D, Tchernof A (2009) Fat depot-specific impact of visceral obesity on adipocyte adiponectin release in women. Obesity (Silver Spring) 17(3):424–430

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duclos M, Gatta B, Corcuff JB, Rashedi M, Pehourcq F, Roger P (2001) Fat distribution in obese women is associated with subtle alterations of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and sensitivity to glucocorticoids. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 55(4):447–454

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dunaif A (1997) Insulin resistance and the polycystic ovary syndrome: mechanism and implications for pathogenesis. Endocr Rev 18(6):774–800

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dvorak R, DeNino WF, Ades PA, Poehlman ET (1999) Phenotypic characteristics associated with insulin resistance in metabolically obese but normal-weight young women. Diabetes 48:2210–2214

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Edens NK, Fried SK, Kral JG, Hirsch J, Leibel RL (1993) In vitro lipid synthesis in human adipose tissue from three abdominal sites. Am J Physiol 265(3 Pt 1):E374–E379

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ekoe JM, Williams R, Zimmet P (2001) The epidemiology of diabetes mellitus: an international perspective, 1st edn. John Wiley & Sons:225–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Elbers JM, Asscheman H, Seidell JC, Megens JA, Gooren LJ (1997) Long-term testosterone administration increases visceral fat in female to male transsexuals. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82(7):2044–2047

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elbers JM, Asscheman H, Seidell JC, Gooren LJ (1999) Effects of sex steroid hormones on regional fat depots as assessed by magnetic resonance imaging in transsexuals. Am J Physiol 276(2 Pt 1):E317–E325

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elbers JM, Giltay EJ, Teerlink T, Scheffer PG, Asscheman H, Seidell JC, Gooren LJ (2003) Effects of sex steroids on components of the insulin resistance syndrome in transsexual subjects. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 58(5):562–571

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Engeli S, Bohnke J, Feldpausch M, Gorzelniak K, Heintze U, Janke J, Luft FC, Sharma AM (2004) Regulation of 11beta-HSD genes in human adipose tissue: influence of central obesity and weight loss. Obes Res 12(1):9–17

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Evans DJ, Barth JH, Burke CW (1988) Body fat topography in women with androgen excess. Int J Obes 12(2):157–162

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fain JN, Kovacev VP, Scow RO (1965) Effect of growth hormone and dexamethasone on lipolysis and metabolism in isolated fat cells of the rat. J Biol Chem 240(9):3522–3529

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fan W, Yanase T, Nomura M, Okabe T, Goto K, Sato T, Kawano H, Kato S, Nawata H (2005) Androgen receptor null male mice develop late-onset obesity caused by decreased energy expenditure and lipolytic activity but show normal insulin sensitivity with high adiponectin secretion. Diabetes 54(4):1000–1008

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Farnier C, Krief S, Blache M, Diot-Dupuy F, Mory G, Ferre P, Bazin R (2003) Adipocyte functions are modulated by cell size change: potential involvement of an integrin/ERK signalling pathway. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 27(10):1178–1186

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrante AW Jr (2007) Obesity-induced inflammation: a metabolic dialogue in the language of inflammation. J Intern Med 262(4):408–414

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Kuczmarski RJ, Johnson CL (1998) Overweight and obesity in the United States: prevalence and trends, 1960-1994. Int J Obes 22:39–47

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, Johnson CL (2002) Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999-2000. JAMA 288(14):1723–1727

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, Curtin LR (2010) Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999-2008. JAMA 303(3):235–241

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ford ES (1999) Body mass index, diabetes, and C-reactive protein among U.S. adults. Diabetes Care 22:1971–1977

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Franck N, Stenkula KG, Ost A, Lindstrom T, Stralfors P, Nystrom FH (2007) Insulin-induced GLUT4 translocation to the plasma membrane is blunted in large compared with small primary fat cells isolated from the same individual. Diabetologia 50(8):1716–1722

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fried SK, Kral JG (1987) Sex differences in regional distribution of fat cell size and lipoprotein lipase activity in morbidly obese patients. Int J Obes 11(2):129–140

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fried SK, Russell CD, Grauso NL, Brolin RE (1993) Lipoprotein lipase regulation by insulin and glucocorticoid in subcutaneous and omental adipose tissues of obese women and men. J Clin Invest 92(5):2191–2198

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gaillard D, Wabitsch M, Pipy B, Negrel R (1991) Control of terminal differentiation of adipose precursor cells by glucocorticoids. J Lipid Res 32(4):569–579

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gambacciani M, Ciaponi M, Cappagli B, Piaggesi L, De Simone L, Orlandi R, Genazzani AR (1997) Body weight, body fat distribution, and hormonal replacement therapy in early postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82(2):414–417

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gapstur SM, Gann PH, Kopp P, Colangelo L, Longcope C, Liu K (2002) Serum androgen concentrations in young men: a longitudinal analysis of associations with age, obesity, and race. The CARDIA male hormone study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 11(10 Pt 1):1041–1047

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garaulet M, Perex-Llamas F, Fuente T, Zamora S, Tebar FJ (2000) Anthropometric, computed tomography and fat cell data in an obese population: relationship with insulin, leptin, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, sex hormone-binding globulin and sex hormones. Eur J Endocrinol 143(5):657–666

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garrison RJ, Kannel WB, Stokes J, Castelli WP (1987) Incidence and precursors of hypertension in young adults: the Framingham Offspring Study. Prev Med 16(2):235–251

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Garvey WT, Maianu L, Hancock JA, Golichowski AM, Baron A (1992) Gene expression of GLUT4 in skeletal muscle from insulin-resistant patients with obesity, IGT, GDM, and NIDDM. Diabetes 41(4):465–475

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gathercole LL, Stewart PM (2010) Targeting the pre-receptor metabolism of cortisol as a novel therapy in obesity and diabetes. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 122(1–3):21–27

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gnacinska M, Malgorzewicz S, Stojek M, Lysiak-Szydlowska W, Sworczak K (2009) Role of adipokines in complications related to obesity: a review. Adv Med Sci 54(2):150–157

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Good M, Newell FM, Haupt LM, Whitehead JP, Hutley LJ, Prins JB (2006) TNF and TNF receptor expression and insulin sensitivity in human omental and subcutaneous adipose tissue–influence of BMI and adipose distribution. Diab Vasc Dis Res 3(1):26–33

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodpaster BH, Thaete FL, Simoneau JA, Kelley DE (1997) Subcutaneous abdominal fat and thigh muscle composition predict insulin sensitivity independently of visceral fat. Diabetes 46(10):1579–1585

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gooren LJ, Giltay EJ (2008) Review of studies of androgen treatment of female-to-male transsexuals: effects and risks of administration of androgens to females. J Sex Med 5(4):765–776

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goulart AC, Zee RY, Rexrode KM (2009) Estrogen receptor 1 gene polymorphisms and decreased risk of obesity in women. Metabolism 56(6):759–764

    Google Scholar 

  • Gregoire F, Genart C, Hauser N, Remacle C (1991) Glucocorticoids induce a drastic inhibition of proliferation and stimulate differentiation of adult rat fat cell precursors. Exp Cell Res 196(2):270–278

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gruber DM, Sator MO, Kirchengast S, Joura EA, Huber JC (1998) Effect of percutaneous androgen replacement therapy on body composition and body weight in postmenopausal women. Maturitas 29(3):253–259

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gruenewald DA, Matsumoto AM (2003) Testosterone supplementation therapy for older men: potential benefits and risks. J Am Geriatr Soc 51(1):101–115

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guo Z, Hensrud DD, Johnson CM, Jensen MD (1999) Regional postprandial fatty acid metabolism in different obesity phenotypes. Diabetes 48(8):1586–1592

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gupta V, Bhasin S, Guo W, Singh R, Miki R, Choong K, Tchkonia T, Lebrasseur NK, Flanagan JD, Hamilton JA, Viverek J, Narula NS, Kirkland JL, Jasuja R (2008) Effects of dihydrotestosterone on differentiation and proliferation of human mesenchymal stem cells and preadipocytes. Mol Cell Endocrinol 296(1–2):32–40

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guthrie JR, Dennerstein L, Taffe JR, Ebeling PR, Randolph JF, Burger HG, Wark JD (2003) Central abdominal fat and endogenous hormones during the menopausal transition. Fertil Steril 79(6):1335–1340

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guthrie JR, Dennerstein L, Taffe JR, Lehert P, Burger HG (2004) The menopausal transition: a 9-yrear prospective population-based study. The Melbourne Women’s Midlife Health Project. Climacteric 74(4):375–389

    Google Scholar 

  • Haffner SM, Moss SE, Klein BE, Klein R (1996) Sex hormones and DHEA-SO4 in relation to ischemic heart disease mortality in diabetic subjects. The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. Diabetes Care 19(10):1045–1050

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hajamor S, Despres JP, Couillard C, Lemieux S, Tremblay A, Prud’homme D, Tchernof A (2003) Relationship between sex hormone-binding globulin levels and features of the metabolic syndrome. Metabolism 52(6):724–730

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Han JC, Lawlor DA, Kimm SY (2010) Childhood obesity. Lancet 375(9727):1737–1748

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hauner H, Entenmann G, Wabitsch M, Gaillard D, Ailhaud G, Negrel R, Pfeiffer EF (1989) Promoting effect of glucocorticoids on the differentiation of human adipocyte precursor cells cultured in a chemically defined medium. J Clin Invest 84(5):1663–1670

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • He G, Pedersen SB, Bruun JM, Lihn AS, Jensen PF, Richelsen B (2003) Differences in plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 in subcutaneous versus omental adipose tissue in non-obese and obese subjects. Horm Metab Res 35(3):178–182

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heilbronn LK, Noakes M, Clifton PM (2001) Energy restriction and weight loss on very-low-fat diets reduce C-reactive protein concentrations in obese, healthy women. Artrerioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 21:968–970

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heine PA, Taylor JA, Iwamoto GA, Lubahn DB, Cooke PS (2000) Increased adipose tissue in male and female estrogen receptor-alpha knockout mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97(23):12729–12734

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hernandez-Morante JJ, Gomez-Santos C, Milagro F, Campion J, Martinez JA, Zamora S, Garaulet M (2009) Expression of cortisol metabolism-related genes shows circadian rhythmic patterns in human adipose tissue. Int J Obes (Lond) 33(4):473–480

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hodson L, Bickerton AS, McQuaid SE, Roberts R, Karpe F, Frayn KN, Fielding BA (2007) The contribution of splanchnic fat to VLDL triglyceride is greater in insulin-resistant than insulin-sensitive men and women: studies in the postprandial state. Diabetes 56(10):2433–2441

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffstedt J, Arner P, Hellers G, Lonnqvist F (1997) Variation in adrenergic regulation of lipolysis between omental and subcutaneous adipocytes from obese and non-obese men. J Lipid Res 38(4):795–804

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffstedt J, Arner E, Wahrenberg H, Andersson DP, Qvisth V, Lofgren P, Ryden M, Thorne A, Wiren M, Palmer M, Thorell A, Toft E, Arner P (2010) Regional impact of adipose tissue morphology on the metabolic profile in morbid obesity. Diabetologia 53(12):2496–24503

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoppmann J, Perwitz N, Meier B, Fasshauer M, Hadaschik D, Lehnert H, Klein J (2010) The balance between gluco- and mineralo-corticoid action critically determines inflammatory adipocyte responses. J Endocrinol 204(2):153–164

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Horenburg S, Fischer-Posovszky P, Debatin KM, Wabitsch M (2008) Influence of sex hormones on adiponectin expression in human adipocytes. Horm Metab Res 40(11):779–786

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoyenga KB, Hoyenga KT (1982) Gender and energy balance: sex differences in adaptations for feast and famine. Physiol Behav 28(3):545–563

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hube F, Hauner H (1999) The role of TNF-alpha in human adipose tissue: prevention of weight gain at the expense of insulin resistance? Horm Metab Res 31(12):626–631

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes KA, Reynolds RM, Andrew R, Critchley HO, Walker BR (2010) Glucocorticoids Turn Over Slowly in Human Adipose Tissue in Vivo. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95(10):4696–4702

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ishii-Yonemoto T, Masuzaki H, Yasue S, Okada S, Kozuka C, Tanaka T, Noguchi M, Tomita T, Fujikura J, Yamamoto Y, Ebihara K, Hosoda K, Nakao K (2010) Glucocorticoid reamplification within cells intensifies NF-kappaB and MAPK signaling and reinforces inflammation in activated preadipocytes. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 298(5):E930–E940

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ivandic A, Prpic-Krizevac I, Bozic D, Barbir A, Peljhan V, Balog Z, Glasnovic M (2002) Insulin resistance and androgens in healthy women with different body fat distributions. Wien Klin Wochenschr 114(8–9):321–326

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jaenicke L, Waffenschmidt S (1979) Matrix-lysis and release of daughter spheroids in Volvox carteri-a proteolytic process. FEBS Lett 107(1):250–253

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen MD (1995) Gender differences in regional fatty acid metabolism before and after meal ingestion. J Clin Invest 96(5):2297–2303

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen MD, Martin ML, Cryer PE, Roust LR (1994) Effects of estrogen on free fatty acid metabolism in humans. Am J Physiol 266(6):914–920

    Google Scholar 

  • Jernas M, Palming J, Sjoholm K, Jennische E, Svensson PA, Gabrielsson BG, Levin M, Sjogren A, Rudemo M, Lystig TC, Carlsson B, Carlsson LM, Lonn M (2006) Separation of human adipocytes by size: hypertrophic fat cells display distinct gene expression. FASEB J 20(9):1540–1542

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jones ME, Thorburn AW, Britt KL, Hewitt KN, Wreford NG, Proietto J, Oz OK, Leury BJ, Robertson KM, Yao S, Simpson ER (2000) Aromatase-deficient (ArKO) mice have a phenotype of increased adiposity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97(23):12735–12740

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Joyner J, Hutley L, Cameron D (2002) Intrinsic regional differences in androgen receptors and dihydrotestosterone metabolism in human preadipocytes. Horm Metab Res 34(5):223–228

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Juhan-Vague I, Alessi MC (1999) Regulation of fibrinolysis in the development of atherothrombosis: role of adipose tissue. Thromb Haemost 82(2):832–836

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kannisto K, Pietilainen KH, Ehrenborg E, Rissanen A, Kaprio J, Hamsten A, Yki-Jarvinen H (2004) Overexpression of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase-1 in adipose tissue is associated with acquired obesity and features of insulin resistance: studies in young adult monozygotic twins. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89(9):4414–4421

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Katzmarzyk PT (2002) The Canadian obesity epidemic, 1985-1998. CMAJ 166:1039–1040

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Katzmarzyk PT, Mason C (2006) Prevalence of class I, II and III obesity in Canada. CMAJ 174:156–157

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaye SA, Folsom AR, Soler JT, Prineas RJ, Potter JD (1991) Associations of body mass and fat distribution with sex hormone concentrations in postmenopausal women. Int J Epidemiol 20(1):151–156

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Keller C, Larkey L, Distefano JK, Boehm-Smith E, Records K, Robillard A, Veres S, Al Zadjali M, O’Brian AM (2010) Perimenopausal obesity. J Womens Health 19(5):987–996

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenny AM, Prestwood KM, Gruman CA, Marcello KM, Raisz LG (2001) Effects of transdermal testosterone on bone and muscle in older men with low bioavailable testosterone levels. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 56(5):M266–M272

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khaw KT, Barrett-Connor E (1991) Endogenous sex hormones, high density lipoprotein cholesterol, and other lipoprotein fractions in men. Arterioscler Thromb 11(3):489–494

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khaw KT, Barrett-Connor E (1992) Lower endogenous androgens predict central adiposity in men. Ann Epidemiol 2(5):675–682

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kissebah AH, Freedman DS, Peiris AN (1989) Health risks of obesity. Med Clin North Am 73:111–138

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kotelevtsev Y, Holmes MC, Burchell A, Houston PM, Schmoll D, Jamieson P, Best R, Brown R, Edwards CR, Seckl JR, Mullins JJ (1997) 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 knockout mice show attenuated glucocorticoid-inducible responses and resist hyperglycemia on obesity or stress. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 94(26):14924–14929

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koutsari C, Dumesic DA, Patterson BW, Votruba SB, Jensen MD (2008) Plasma free fatty acid storage in subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue in postabsorptive women. Diabetes 57(5):1186–1194

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kreisberg RA, Oberman A (2003) Medical management of hyperlipidemia/dyslipidemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88(6):2445–2461

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kuczmarski RJ, Flegal KM, Campbell SM, Johnson CL (1994) Increasing prevalence of overweight among US adults. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys, 1960 to 1991. JAMA 272(3):205–211

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kvist H, Tylen U, Sjöström L (1987) Adipose tissue volume determinations in women by computed tomography: technical considerations. Int J Obes 10:53–67

    Google Scholar 

  • Laaksonen DE, Niskanen L, Punnonen K, Nyyssonen K, Tuomainen TP, Salonen R, Rauramaa R, Salonen JT (2003) Sex hormones, inflammation and the metabolic syndrome: a population-based study. Eur J Endocrinol 149(6):601–608

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Labrie F (2007) Drug insight: breast cancer prevention and tissue-targeted hormone replacement therapy. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 3(8):584–593

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Labrie F, Luu-The V, Labrie C, Bélanger A, Simard J, Lin SX, Pelletier G (2003) Endocrine and intracrine sources of androgens in women: inhibition of breast cancer and other roles of androgens and their precursor dehydroepiandrosterone. Endocr Rev 24(2):152–182

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lacasa D, Agli B, Giudicelli Y (1988) Permissive action of glucocorticoids on catecholamine-induced lipolysis: direct “in vitro” effects on the fat cell beta-adrenoreceptor-coupled-adenylate cyclase system. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 153(2):489–497

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lacasa D, Garcia E, Henriot D, Agli B, Giudicelli Y (1997) Site-related specificities of the control by androgenic status of adipogenesis and mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade/c-fos signaling pathways in rat preadipocytes. Endocrinology 138(8):3181–3186

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Laughlin GA, Barrett-Connor E, May S (2006) Sex-specific association of the androgen to oestrogen ratio with adipocytokine levels in older adults: the Rancho Bernardo Study. Clin Endocrinol 65(4):506–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Laughlin GA, Barrett-Connor E, May S (2007) Sex-specific determinants of serum adiponectin in older adults: the role of endogenous sex hormones. Int J Obes (Lond) 31(3):457–465

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lear SA, Humphries KH, Frohlich JJ, Birmingham CL (2007a) Appropriateness of current thresholds for obesity-related measures among Aboriginal people. CMAJ 177(12):1499–1505

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lear SA, Humphries KH, Kohli S, Chockalingam A, Frohlich JJ, Birmingham CL (2007b) Visceral adipose tissue accumulation differs according to ethnic background: results of the Multicultural Community Health Assessment Trial (M-CHAT). Am J Clin Nutr 86(2):353–359

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ledoux S, Coupaye M, Essig M, Msika S, Roy C, Queguiner I, Clerici C, Larger E (2009) Traditional anthropometric parameters still predict metabolic disorders in women with severe obesity. Obesity (Silver Spring) 18(5):1026–1032

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee MJ, Fried SK, Mundt SS, Wang Y, Sullivan S, Stefanni A, Daugherty BL, Hermanowski-Vosatka A (2008) Depot-specific regulation of the conversion of cortisone to cortisol in human adipose tissue. Obesity (Silver Spring) 16(6):1178–1185

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lemieux S, Despres JP (1994) Metabolic complications of visceral obesity: contribution to the aetiology of type 2 diabetes and implications for prevention and treatment. Diabete Metab 20(4):375–393

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lemieux S, Despres JP, Moorjani S, Nadeau A, Theriault G, Prud’homme D, Tremblay A, Bouchard C, Lupien PJ (1994) Are gender differences in cardiovascular disease risk factors explained by the level of visceral adipose tissue? Diabetologia 37(8):757–764

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lemieux I, Pascot A, Couillard C, Lamarche B, Tchernof A, Almeras N, Bergeron J, Gaudet D, Tremblay G, Prud’homme D, Nadeau A, Despres JP (2000) Hypertriglyceridemic waist: a marker of the atherogenic metabolic triad (hyperinsulinemia; hyperapolipoprotein B; small, dense LDL) in men? Circulation 102(2):179–184

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lemieux I, Pascot A, Lamarche B, Prud’homme D, Nadeau A, Bergeron J, Despres JP (2002) Is the gender difference in LDL size explained by the metabolic complications of visceral obesity? Eur J Clin Invest 32(12):909–917

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lindsay RS, Wake DJ, Nair S, Bunt J, Livingstone DE, Permana PA, Tataranni PA, Walker BR (2003) Subcutaneous adipose 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 activity and messenger ribonucleic acid levels are associated with adiposity and insulinemia in Pima Indians and Caucasians. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88(6):2738–2744

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ljung T, Andersson B, Bengtsson BA, Bjorntorp P, Marin P (1996) Inhibition of cortisol secretion by dexamethasone in relation to body fat distribution: a dose-response study. Obes Res 4(3):277–282

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lonn M, Mehlig K, Bengtsson C, Lissner L (2010) Adipocyte size predicts incidence of type 2 diabetes in women. FASEB J 24(1):326–331

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy JC, Bray GA, Greeson CS, Klemperer M, Morris J, Partington C, Tulley R (1995) Oral anabolic steroid treatment, but not parenteral androgen treatment, decreases abdominal fat in obese, older men. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 19(9):614–624

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy JC, Champagne CM, de Jonge L, Xie H, Smith SR (2008) Increased visceral fat and decreased energy expenditure during the menopausal transition. IJO 32(6):949–958

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lundgren M, Buren J, Ruge T, Myrnas T, Eriksson JW (2004) Glucocorticoids down-regulate glucose uptake capacity and insulin-signaling proteins in omental but not subcutaneous human adipocytes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89(6):2989–2997

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lundgren M, Svensson M, Lindmark S, Renstrom F, Ruge T, Eriksson JW (2007) Fat cell enlargement is an independent marker of insulin resistance and ‘hyperleptinaemia’. Diabetologia 50(3):625–633

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lundgren M, Buren J, Lindgren P, Myrnas T, Ruge T, Eriksson JW (2008) Sex- and depot-specific lipolysis regulation in human adipocytes: interplay between adrenergic stimulation and glucocorticoids. Horm Metab Res 40(12):854–860

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Macfarlane DP, Forbes S, Walker BR (2008) Glucocorticoids and fatty acid metabolism in humans: fuelling fat redistribution in the metabolic syndrome. J Endocrinol 197(2):189–204

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Machinal-Quelin F, Dieudonne MN, Pecquery R, Leneveu MC, Giudicelli Y (2002) Direct in vitro effects of androgens and estrogens on ob gene expression and leptin secretion in human adipose tissue. Endocrine 18(2):179–184

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mackenzie SM, Huda SS, Sattar N, Fraser R, Connell JM, Davies E (2008) Depot-specific steroidogenic gene transcription in human adipose tissue. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 69(6):848–854

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MacLaren R, Cui W, Simard S, Cianflone K (2008) Influence of obesity and insulin sensitivity on insulin signaling genes in human omental and subcutaneous adipose tissue. J Lipid Res 49(2):308–323

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marette A, Mauriege P, Marcotte B, Atgie C, Bouchard C, Theriault G, Bukowiecki LJ, Marceau P, Biron S, Nadeau A, Despres JP (1997) Regional variation in adipose tissue insulin action and GLUT4 glucose transporter expression in severely obese premenopausal women. Diabetologia 40(5):590–598

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marin P (1995) Testosterone and regional fat distribution. Obes Res 3(Suppl 4):609S–612S

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marin P, Andersson B, Ottosson M, Olbe L, Chowdhury B, Kvist H, Holm G, Sjostrom L, Bjorntorp P (1992a) The morphology and metabolism of intraabdominal adipose tissue in men. Metabolism 41(11):1242–1248

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marin P, Darin N, Amemiya T, Andersson B, Jern S, Bjorntorp P (1992b) Cortisol secretion in relation to body fat distribution in obese premenopausal women. Metabolism 41(8):882–886

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marin P, Holmang S, Jonsson L, Sjostrom L, Kvist H, Holm G, Lindstedt G, Bjorntorp P (1992c) The effects of testosterone treatment on body composition and metabolism in middle-aged obese men. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 16(12):991–997

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marin P, Lonn L, Andersson B, Oden B, Olbe L, Bengtsson BA, Bjorntorp P (1996) Assimilation of triglycerides in subcutaneous and intraabdominal adipose tissues in vivo in men: effects of testosterone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81(3):1018–1022

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martin ML, Jensen MD (1991) Effects of body fat distribution on regional lipolysis in obesity. J Clin Invest 88(2):609–613

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maslowska MH, Sniderman AD, MacLean LD, Cianflone K (1993) Regional differences in triacylglycerol synthesis in adipose tissue and in cultured preadipocytes. J Lipid Res 34(2):219–228

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Masuzaki H, Flier JS (2003) Tissue-specific glucocorticoid reactivating enzyme, 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11 beta-HSD1)–a promising drug target for the treatment of metabolic syndrome. Curr Drug Targets Immune Endocr Metabol Disord 3(4):255–262

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Masuzaki H, Paterson J, Shinyama H, Morton NM, Mullins JJ, Seckl JR, Flier JS (2001) A transgenic model of visceral obesity and the metabolic syndrome. Science 294(5549):2166–2170

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mattsson C, Olsson T (2007) Estrogens and glucocorticoid hormones in adipose tissue metabolism. Curr Med Chem 14(27):2918–2924

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mauriege P, Marette A, Atgie C, Bouchard C, Theriault G, Bukowiecki LK, Marceau P, Biron S, Nadeau A, Despres JP (1995) Regional variation in adipose tissue metabolism of severely obese premenopausal women. J Lipid Res 36(4):672–684

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McIntosh MK, Lea-Currie YR, Geigerman C, Patseavouras L (1999) Dehydroepiandrosterone alters the growth of stromal vascular cells from human adipose tissue. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 23(6):595–602

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meek SE, Nair KS, Jensen MD (1999) Insulin regulation of regional free fatty acid metabolism. Diabetes 48(1):10–14

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Michailidou Z, Jensen MD, Dumesic DA, Chapman KE, Seckl JR, Walker BR, Morton NM (2007) Omental 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 1 correlates with fat cell size independently of obesity. Obesity (Silver Spring) 15(5):1155–1163

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miller GF (1998) A review of sexual selection and human evolution: how mate choice shaped human nature. In: Crawford C, Krebs D (eds.) Handbook of evolutionary psychology: ideas, issues, and applications. Lawrence Erlbaum: New Jersey, pp 87–130

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller LK, Kral JG, Strain GW, Zumoff B (1990) Androgen binding to ammonium sulfate precipitates of human adipose tissue cytosols. Steroids 55(9):410–415

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mohamed-Ali V, Coppack SW (1998) Adipose tissue as an endocrine and paracrine organ. IJO 22:1145–1158

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Monjo M, Pujol E, Roca P (2005) alpha2- to beta3-Adrenoceptor switch in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and adipocytes: modulation by testosterone, 17beta-estradiol, and progesterone. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 289(1):E145–E150

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Motoshima H, Wu X, Sinha MK, Hardy VE, Rosato EL, Barbot DJ, Rosato FE, Goldstein BJ (2002) Differential regulation of adiponectin secretion from cultured human omental and subcutaneous adipocytes: effects of insulin and rosiglitazone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87(12):5662–5667

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mundi MS, Karpyak MV, Koutsari C, Votruba SB, O’Brien PC, Jensen MD (2010) Body fat distribution, adipocyte size, and metabolic characteristics of nondiabetic adults. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95(1):67–73

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Neels JG, Olefsky JM (2006) Inflamed fat: what starts the fire? J Clin Invest 116(1):33–35

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen TT, Hernandez MA, Johnson CM, Jensen MD (1996) Postprandial leg and splanchnic fatty acid metabolism in nonobese men and women. Am J Physiol 271(6):965–972

    Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen S, Guo Z, Johnson CM, Hensrud DD, Jensen MD (2004) Splanchnic lipolysis in human obesity. J Clin Invest 113(11):1582–1588

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nielsen TL, Hagen C, Wraae K, Brixen K, Petersen PH, Haug E, Larsen R, Andersen M (2007) Visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue assessed by magnetic resonance imaging in relation to circulating androgens, sex hormone-binding globulin, and luteinizing hormone in young men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92(7):2696–705

    Google Scholar 

  • NIH Consensus Conference (1985) Lowering blood cholesterol to prevent heart disease. JAMA 253(14):2080–2086

    Google Scholar 

  • Nilsson M, Dahlman I, Jiao H, Gustafsson JA, Arner P, Dahlman-Wright K (2007) Impact of estrogen receptor gene polymorphisms and mRNA levels on obesity and lipolysis--a cohort study. BMC Med Genet 8:73

    Google Scholar 

  • Okura T, Koda M, Ando F, Niino N, Ohta S, Shimokata H (2003) Association of polymorphisms in the estrogen receptor alpha gene with body fat distribution. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 27(9):1020–1027

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ostman J, Arner P, Engfeldt P, Kager L (1979) Regional differences in the control of lipolysis in human adipose tissue. Metabolism 28(12):1198–1205

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ottosson M, Marin P, Karason K, Elander A, Bjorntorp P (1995) Blockade of the glucocorticoid receptor with RU 486: effects in vitro and in vivo on human adipose tissue lipoprotein lipase activity. Obes Res 3(3):233–240

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Palin SL, McTernan PG, Anderson LA, Sturdee DW, Barnett AH, Kumar S (2003) 17Beta-estradiol and anti-estrogen ICI:compound 182,780 regulate expression of lipoprotein lipase and hormone-sensitive lipase in isolated subcutaneous abdominal adipocytes. Metabolism 52(4):383–388

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Panarotto D, Poisson J, Devroede G, Maheux P (2000) Lipoprotein lipase steady-state mRNA levels are lower in human omental versus subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue. Metabolism 49(9):1224–1227

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pascot A, Despres JP, Lemieux I, Almeras N, Bergeron J, Nadeau A, Prud’homme D, Tremblay A, Lemieux S (2001) Deterioration of the metabolic risk profile in women. Respective contributions of impaired glucose tolerance and visceral fat accumulation. Diabetes Care 24(5):902–908

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pascot A, Lemieux I, Bergeron J, Tremblay A, Nadeau A, Prud’homme D, Couillard C, Lamarche B, Despres JP (2002) HDL particle size: a marker of the gender difference in the metabolic risk profile. Atherosclerosis 160(2):399–406

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pasquali R, Vicennati V (2000) Activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in different obesity phenotypes. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 24(Suppl 2):47–49

    Google Scholar 

  • Pasquali R, Casimirri F, Cantobelli S, Melchionda N, Morselli Labate AM, Fabbri R, Capelli M, Bortoluzzi L (1991) Effect of obesity and body fat distribution on sex hormones and insulin in men. Metabolism 40(1):101–104

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Paulsen SK, Pedersen SB, Fisker S, Richelsen B (2007) 11Beta-HSD type 1 expression in human adipose tissue: impact of gender, obesity, and fat localization. Obesity (Silver Spring) 15(8):1954–1960

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pedersen SB, Borglum JD, Eriksen EF, Richelsen B (1991) Nuclear estradiol binding in rat adipocytes. Regional variations and regulatory influences of hormones. Biochim Biophys Acta 1093(1):80–86

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pedersen SB, Borglum JD, Brixen K, Richelsen B (1995) Relationship between sex hormones, body composition and metabolic risk parameters in premenopausal women. Eur J Endocrinol 133(2):200–206

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pedersen SB, Fuglsig S, Sjogren P, Richelsen B (1996) Identification of steroid receptors in human adipose tissue. Eur J Clin Invest 26(12):1051–1056

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peeke PM, Chrousos GP (1995) Hypercortisolism and obesity. Ann N Y Acad Sci 771:665–676

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Phillips GB, Jing T, Heymsfield SB (2003) Relationships in men of sex hormones, insulin, adiposity, and risk factors for myocardial infarction. Metabolism 52(6):784–790

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pond CM (1992) An evolutionary and functional view of mammalian adipose tissue. Proc Nutr Soc 51(3):367–377

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pouliot MC, Després JP, Nadeau A, Moorjani S, Prud’homme D, Lupien PJ, Tremblay A, Bouchard C (1992) Visceral obesity in men: associations with glucose tolerance, plasma insulin, and lipoprotein levels. Diabetes 41:826–834

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Price TM, O’Brien SN, Welter BH, George R, Anandjiwala J, Kilgore M (1998) Estrogen regulation of adipose tissue lipoprotein lipase–possible mechanism of body fat distribution. Am J Obstet Gynecol 178(1):101–107

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Primeau V, Coderre L, Karelis AD, Brochu M, Lavoie ME, Messier V, Sladek R, Rabasa-Lhoret R (2010) Characterizing the profile of obese patients who are metabolically healthy. IJO Epub ahead of print

    Google Scholar 

  • Pritchard J, Despres JP, Gagnon J, Tchernof A, Nadeau A, Tremblay A, Bouchard C (1998) Plasma adrenal, gonadal, and conjugated steroids before and after long-term overfeeding in identical twins. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83(9):3277–3284

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Putignano P, Pecori GF, Cavagnini F (2004) Tissue-specific dysregulation of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 and pathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome. J Endocrinol Invest 27(10):969–974

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rask E, Walker BR, Soderberg S, Livingstone DE, Eliasson M, Johnson O, Andrew R, Olsson T (2002) Tissue-specific changes in peripheral cortisol metabolism in obese women: increased adipose 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 activity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87(7):3330–3336

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rebuffe-Scrive M, Lonnroth P, Marin P, Wesslau C, Bjorntorp P, Smith U (1987) Regional adipose tissue metabolism in men and postmenopausal women. Int J Obes 11(4):347–355

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rebuffe-Scrive M, Andersson B, Olbe L, Bjorntorp P (1989) Metabolism of adipose tissue in intraabdominal depots of nonobese men and women. Metabolism 38(5):453–458

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rebuffe-Scrive M, Anderson B, Olbe L, Bjorntorp P (1990) Metabolism of adipose tissue in intraabdominal depots in severely obese men and women. Metabolism 39(10):1021–1025

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rebuffe-Scrive M, Marin P, Bjorntorp P (1991) Effect of testosterone on abdominal adipose tissue in men. Int J Obes 15(11):791–795

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rendell M, Hulthen UL, Tornquist C, Groop L, Mattiasson I (2001) Relationship between abdominal fat compartments and glucose and lipid metabolism in early postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86(2):744–749

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Reynisdottir S, Dauzats M, Thorne A, Langin D (1997) Comparison of hormone-sensitive lipase activity in visceral and subcutaneous human adipose tissue. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82(12):4162–4166

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Richard D (1986) Effects of ovarian hormones on energy balance and brown adipose tissue thermogenesis. Am J Physiol 250(19):R245–R249

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Richelsen B, Pedersen SB, Moller-Pedersen T, Bak JF (1991) Regional differences in triglyceride breakdown in human adipose tissue: effects of catecholamines, insulin, and prostaglandin E2. Metabolism 40(9):990–996

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez-Cuenca S, Monjo M, Proenza AM, Roca P (2005) Depot differences in steroid receptor expression in adipose tissue: possible role of the local steroid milieu. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 288(1):E200–E207

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rogoff D, Ryder JW, Black K, Yan Z, Burgess SC, McMillan DR, White PC (2007) Abnormalities of glucose homeostasis and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in mice lacking hexose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Endocrinology 148(10):5072–5080

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rokholm B, Baker JL, Sorensen TI (2010) The levelling off of the obesity epidemic since the year 1999 - a review of evidence and perspectives. Obes Rev 11(12):835–46

    Google Scholar 

  • Romanski SA, Nelson RM, Jensen MD (2000) Meal fatty acid uptake in adipose tissue: gender effects in nonobese humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 279(2):455–462

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenstock J, Banarer S, Fonseca VA, Inzucchi SE, Sun W, Yao W, Hollis G, Flores R, Levy R, Williams WV, Seckl JR, Huber R (2010) The 11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 inhibitor INCB13739 improves hyperglycemia in patients with type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled by metformin monotherapy. Diabetes Care 33(7):1516–1522

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosmond R, Dallman MF, Bjorntorp P (1998) Stress-related cortisol secretion in men: relationships with abdominal obesity and endocrine, metabolic and hemodynamic abnormalities. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83(6):1853–1859

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosner W, Auchus RJ, Azziz R, Sluss PM, Raff H (2007) Position statement: Utility, limitations, and pitfalls in measuring testosterone: an Endocrine Society position statement. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92(2):405–413

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ross R, Leger L, Morris D, de Guise J, Guardo R (1992) Quantification of adipose tissue by MRI: relationship with anthropometric variables. J Appl Physiol 72(2):787–795

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rossouw JE, Anderson GL, Prentice RL, LaCroix AZ, Kooperberg C, Stefanick ML, Jackson RD, Beresford SA, Howard BV, Johnson KC, Kotchen JM, Ockene J (2002) Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women: principal results From the Women’s Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. Jama 288(3):321–333

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan AS, Nicklas BJ, Berman DM (2002) Hormone replacement therapy, insulin sensitivity, and abdominal obesity in postmenopausal women. Diabetes Care 25(1):127–133

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Salans LB, Cushman SW, Weismann RE (1973) Studies of human adipose tissue. Adipose cell size and number in nonobese and obese patients. J Clin Invest 52(4):929–941

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sato T, Matsumoto T, Yamada T, Watanabe T, Kawano H, Kato S (2003) Late onset of obesity in male androgen receptor-deficient (AR KO) mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 300(1):167–171

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schacke H, Docke WD, Asadullah K (2002) Mechanisms involved in the side effects of glucocorticoids. Pharmacol Ther 96(1):23–43

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider H, Dietrich ES, Venetz WP (2010) Trends and stabilization up to 2022 in overweight and obesity in Switzerland, comparison to France, UK, US and Australia. Int J Environ Res Public Health 7(2):460–472

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schroeder ET, Zheng L, Ong MD, Martinez C, Flores C, Stewart Y, Azen C, Sattler FR (2004) Effects of androgen therapy on adipose tissue and metabolism in older men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89(10):4863–4872

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seckl JR, Walker BR (2001) Minireview: 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1- a tissue-specific amplifier of glucocorticoid action. Endocrinology 142(4):1371–1376

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seckl JR, Morton NM, Chapman KE, Walker BR (2004) Glucocorticoids and 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase in adipose tissue. Recent Prog Horm Res 59:359–393

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seidell JC, Flegal KM (1997) Assessing obesity: classification and epidemiology. Br Med Bull 53(2):238–252

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seidell JC, Bjorntorp P, Sjostrom L, Kvist H, Sannerstedt R (1990a) Visceral fat accumulation in men is positively associated with insulin, glucose, and C-peptide levels, but negatively with testosterone levels. Metabolism 39(9):897–901

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seidell JC, Cigolini M, Charzewska J, Ellsinger BM, Di Biase G, Bjorntorp P, Hautvast JG, Contaldo F, Szostak V, Scuro LA (1990b) Androgenicity in relation to body fat distribution and metabolism in 38- year-old women–the European Fat Distribution Study. J Clin Epidemiol 43(1):21–34

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seidell JC, Cigolini M, Charzewska J, Ellsinger BM, Di Biase G, Bjorntorp P, Hautvast JG, Contaldo F, Szostak V, Scuro LA (1990c) Androgenicity in relation to body fat distribution and metabolism in 38-year-old women--the European Fat Distribution Study. J Clin Epidemiol 43(1):21–34

    Google Scholar 

  • Shadid S, Koutsari C, Jensen MD (2007) Direct free fatty acid uptake into human adipocytes in vivo: relation to body fat distribution. Diabetes 56(5):1369–1375

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shaw JE, Sicree RA, Zimmet PZ (2010) Global estimates of the prevalence of diabetes for 2010 and 2030. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 87(1):4–14

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Siervogel RM, Demerath EW, Schubert C, Remsberg KE, Chumlea WC, Sun S, Czerwinski SA, Towne B (2003) Puberty and body composition. Horm Res 60(Suppl 1):36–45

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sims EAH (1982) Characterization of the syndromes of obesity. In: Brodoff DN, Bleicher SJ (eds) Diabetes mellitus and obesity. Williams & Wilkins, Brooklyn, NY, pp 219–226

    Google Scholar 

  • Sims EAH, Berchtold P (1982) Obesity and hypertension: mechanisms and implications for management. JAMA 247:49–52

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh R, Artaza JN, Taylor WE, Braga M, Yuan X, Gonzalez-Cadavid NF, Bhasin S (2006) Testosterone inhibits adipogenic differentiation in 3T3-L1 cells: nuclear translocation of androgen receptor complex with beta-catenin and T-cell factor 4 may bypass canonical Wnt signaling to down-regulate adipogenic transcription factors. Endocrinology 147(1):141–154

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sinha MK, Caro JF (1998) Clinical aspects of leptin. Vitam Horm 54:1–30

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sites CK, Calles-Escandon J, Brochu M, Butterfield M, Ashikaga T, Poehlman ET (2000) Relation of regional fat distribution to insulin sensitivity in postmenopausal women. Fertil Steril 73(1):61–65

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sjöström L, Kvist H, Cederblad A, Tylen U (1986) Determination of total adipose tissue and body fat in women by computed tomography, 40K, and tritium. Am J Physiol 250(6 Pt 1):736–745

    Google Scholar 

  • Skurk T, Alberti-Huber C, Herder C, Hauner H (2007) Relationship between adipocyte size and adipokine expression and secretion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 92(3):1023–1033

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Slavin BG, Ong JM, Kern PA (1994) Hormonal regulation of hormone-sensitive lipase activity and mRNA levels in isolated rat adipocytes. J Lipid Res 35(9):1535–1541

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Smith SR, Zachwieja JJ (1999) Visceral adipose tissue: a critical review of intervention strategies. Int J Obes 23:329–335

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sniderman AD, Bhopal R, Dorairaj P, Sarrafzadegan N, Tchernof A (2007) Why might south asians be so susceptible to central obesity and its atherogenic consequences? The adipose tissue compartment hypothesis. Int J Epidemiol 36:220–225

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snyder PJ, Peachey H, Hannoush P, Berlin JA, Loh L, Holmes JH, Dlewati A, Staley J, Santanna J, Kapoor SC, Attie MF, Haddad JG Jr, Strom BL (1999) Effect of testosterone treatment on bone mineral density in men over 65 years of age. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84(6):1966–1972

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Spalding KL, Arner E, Westermark PO, Bernard S, Buchholz BA, Bergmann O, Blomqvist L, Hoffstedt J, Naslund E, Britton T, Concha H, Hassan M, Ryden M, Frisen J, Arner P (2008) Dynamics of fat cell turnover in humans. Nature 453(7196):783–787

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stolic M, Russell A, Hutley L, Fielding G, Hay J, MacDonald G, Whitehead J, Prins J (2002) Glucose uptake and insulin action in human adipose tissue–influence of BMI, anatomical depot and body fat distribution. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 26(1):17–23

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Strain GW, Zumoff B, Strain JJ, Levin J, Fukushima DK (1980) Cortisol production in obesity. Metabolism 29(10):980–985

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tchernof A, Labrie F (2004) Dehydroepiandrosterone, obesity and cardiovascular disease risk: a review of human studies. Eur J Endocrinol 151(1):1–14

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tchernof A, Despres JP, Belanger A, Dupont A, Prud’homme D, Moorjani S, Lupien PJ, Labrie F (1995) Reduced testosterone and adrenal C19 steroid levels in obese men. Metabolism 44(4):513–519

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tchernof A, Levesque E, Beaulieu M, Couture P, Despres JP, Hum DW, Belanger A (1999) Expression of the androgen metabolizing enzyme UGT2B15 in adipose tissue and relative expression measurement using a competitive RT-PCR method. Clinical Endocrinology (Oxf) 50(5):637–642

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tchernof A, Nolan A, Sites CK, Ades PA, Poehlman ET (2002) Weight loss reduces C-reactive protein levels in obese postmenopausal women. Circulation 105:564–569

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tchernof A, Desmeules A, Richard C, Laberge P, Daris M, Mailloux J, Rheaume C, Dupont P (2004) Ovarian hormone status and abdominal visceral adipose tissue metabolism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89(7):3425–3430

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tchernof A, Belanger C, Morisset AS, Richard C, Mailloux J, Laberge P, Dupont P (2006) Regional differences in adipose tissue metabolism in women: minor effect of obesity and body fat distribution. Diabetes 55(5):1353–1360

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tchoukalova YD, Koutsari C, Karpyak MV, Votruba SB, Wendland E, Jensen MD (2008) Subcutaneous adipocyte size and body fat distribution. Am J Clin Nutr 87(1):56–63

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tchoukalova YD, Koutsari C, Votruba SB, Tchkonia T, Giorgadze N, Thomou T, Kirkland JL, Jensen MD (2010) Sex- and depot-dependent differences in adipogenesis in normal-weight humans. Obesity (Silver Spring) 18(10):1875–1880

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomlinson JW, Sinha B, Bujalska I, Hewison M, Stewart PM (2002) Expression of 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 in adipose tissue is not increased in human obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87(12):5630–5635

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trayhurn P, Wood IS (2005) Signalling role of adipose tissue: adipokines and inflammation in obesity. Biochem Soc Trans 33(Pt 5):1078–1081

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trivers RL (1972) Parental investment and sexual selection (Chapter 7). In: Sexual selection and the descent of man. Editor: Campbell B, Aldine Publishing Co., Chicago. p.136–179

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsai EC, Matsumoto AM, Fujimoto WY, Boyko EJ (2004) Association of bioavailable, free, and total testosterone with insulin resistance: influence of sex hormone-binding globulin and body fat. Diabetes Care 27(4):861–868

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Turcato E, Zamboni M, De Pergola G, Armellini F, Zivelonghi A, Bergamo-Andreis IA, Giorgino R, Bosello O (1997) Interrelationships between weight loss, body fat distribution and sex hormones in pre- and postmenopausal obese women. J Intern Med 241(5):363–372

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • US Department of Health and Human Services and Carmona RHM (2003) The obesity crisis in America. Public Health Service, Office of the Surgeon General, US Department of Health and Human Services

    Google Scholar 

  • van Harmelen V, Dicker A, Ryden M, Hauner H, Lonnqvist F, Naslund E, Arner P (2002) Increased lipolysis and decreased leptin production by human omental as compared with subcutaneous preadipocytes. Diabetes 51(7):2029–2036

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Loan MD (1996) Total body composition: birth to old age. (11):205–215

    Google Scholar 

  • Veilleux A, Blouin K, Rheaume C, Daris M, Marette A, Tchernof A (2009a) Glucose transporter 4 and insulin receptor substrate-1 messenger RNA expression in omental and subcutaneous adipose tissue in women. Metabolism 58(5):624–631

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Veilleux A, Rheaume C, Daris M, Luu-The V, Tchernof A (2009b) Omental adipose tissue type 1 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase oxoreductase activity, body fat distribution, and metabolic alterations in women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 94(9):3550–3557

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Veilleux A, Laberge PY, Morency J, Noel S, Luu-The V, Tchernof A (2010) Expression of genes related to glucocorticoid action in human subcutaneous and omental adipose tissue. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 122(1–3):28–34

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Veilleux A, Caron-Jobin M, Noel S, Laberge PY, Tchernof A (2011) Visceral adipocyte hypertrophy is associated with dyslipidemia independent of body composition and fat distribution in women. Diabetes 60:1504–1511

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Veldhuis JD, Roemmich JN, Richmond EJ, Rogol AD, Lovejoy JC, Sheffield-Moore M, Mauras N, Bowers CY (2005) Endocrine control of body composition in infancy, childhood, and puberty. Endocr Rev 26:114–146

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vermeulen A, Verdonck L, Kaufman JM (1999) A critical evaluation of simple methods for the estimation of free testosterone in serum. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84(10):3666–3672

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Votruba SB, Jensen MD (2007) Sex differences in abdominal, gluteal, and thigh LPL activity. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 292(6):1823–1828

    Google Scholar 

  • Wajchenberg BL (2000) Subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue: their relation to the metabolic syndrome. Endocrine Reviews 21(6):697–738

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wake DJ, Strand M, Rask E, Westerbacka J, Livingstone DE, Soderberg S, Andrew R, Yki-Jarvinen H, Olsson T, Walker BR (2007) Intra-adipose sex steroid metabolism and body fat distribution in idiopathic human obesity. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 66(3):440–446

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Walker BR, Soderberg S, Lindahl B, Olsson T (2000) Independent effects of obesity and cortisol in predicting cardiovascular risk factors in men and women. J Intern Med 247(2):198–204

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Watson GH, Manes JL, Mayes JS, McCann JP (1993) Biochemical and immunological characterization of oestrogen receptor in the cytosolic fraction of gluteal, omental and perirenal adipose tissues from sheep. J Endocrinol 139(1):107–115

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weisberg SP, McCann D, Desai M, Rosenbaum M, Leibel RL, Ferrante AW Jr (2003) Obesity is associated with macrophage accumulation in adipose tissue. J Clin Invest 112(12):1796–1808

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wells JC (2007) Sexual dimorphism of body composition. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 21(3):415–430

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Westerbacka J, Yki-Jarvinen H, Vehkavaara S, Hakkinen AM, Andrew R, Wake DJ, Seckl JR, Walker BR (2003) Body fat distribution and cortisol metabolism in healthy men: enhanced 5beta-reductase and lower cortisol/cortisone metabolite ratios in men with fatty liver. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88(10):4924–4931

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Westergren H, Danielsson A, Nystrom FH, Stralfors P (2005) Glucose transport is equally sensitive to insulin stimulation, but basal and insulin-stimulated transport is higher, in human omental compared with subcutaneous adipocytes. Metabolism 54(6):781–785

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weyer C, Foley JE, Bogardus C, Tataranni PA, Pratley RE (2000) Enlarged subcutaneous abdominal adipocyte size, but not obesity itself, predicts type II diabetes independent of insulin resistance. Diabetologia 43(12):1498–1506

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Whitehead JP, Richards AA, Hickman IJ, Macdonald GA, Prins JB (2006) Adiponectin--a key adipokine in the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Obes Metab

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson PW, Castelli WP, Kannel WB (1987) Coronary risk prediction in adults (the Framingham Heart Study). Am J Cardiol 59(14):91G–94G

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wolf G (1999) The molecular mechanism of the stimulation of adipocyte differentiation by a glucocorticoid. Nutr Rev 57(10):324–326

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Woodhouse LJ, Gupta N, Bhasin M, Singh AB, Ross R, Phillips J, Bhasin S (2004) Dose-dependent effects of testosterone on regional adipose tissue distribution in healthy young men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89(2):718–726

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xita N, Tsatsoulis A (2006) Review: fetal programming of polycystic ovary syndrome by androgen excess: evidence from experimental, clinical, and genetic association studies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 91(5):1660–1666

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xu XF, Bjorntorp P (1990) Effects of dexamethasone on multiplication and differentiation of rat adipose precursor cells. Exp Cell Res 189(2):247–252

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xu XF, De Pergola G, Bjorntorp P (1991) Testosterone increases lipolysis and the number of beta-adrenoceptors in male rat adipocytes. Endocrinology 128(1):379–382

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Xu C, He J, Jiang H, Zu L, Zhai W, Pu S, Xu G (2009) Direct effect of glucocorticoids on lipolysis in adipocytes. Mol Endocrinol 23(8):1161–1170

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yacoub Wasef SZ, Robinson KA, Berkaw MN, Buse MG (2006) Glucose, dexamethasone, and the unfolded protein response regulate TRB3 mRNA expression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and L6 myotubes. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 291(6):E1274–E1280

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Y, Dufort I, Rheault P, Luu-The V (2000) Characterization of a human 20alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. J Mol Endocrinol 25(2):221–228

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang Y, Nadeau M, Faucher F, Lescelleur O, Biron S, Daris M, Rheaume C, Luu-The V, Tchernof A (2009) Progesterone metabolism in adipose cells. Mol Cell Endocrinol 298(1–2):76–83

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zierath JR, Livingston JN, Thorne A, Bolinder J, Reynisdottir S, Lonnqvist F, Arner P (1998) Regional difference in insulin inhibition of non-esterified fatty acid release from human adipocytes: relation to insulin receptor phosphorylation and intracellular signalling through the insulin receptor substrate-1 pathway. Diabetologia 41(11):1343–1354

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zinder O, Shapiro B (1971) Effect of cell size on epinephrine- and ACTH-induced fatty acid release from isolated fat cells. J Lipid Res 12(1):91–95

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Departments of Nutrition, Endocrinology and Genomics, Laval University, 2705 Laurier Blvd, T3-67, Quebec City, Que, G1V 4G2, Canada

    Alain Veilleux & André Tchernof

Authors
  1. Alain Veilleux
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. André Tchernof
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to André Tchernof .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Queen's Medical Centre, School of Human Development, University Hospital, Nottingham, NG7 2UH, United Kingdom

    Michael E. Symonds

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Veilleux, A., Tchernof, A. (2012). Sex Differences in Body Fat Distribution. In: Symonds, M. (eds) Adipose Tissue Biology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0965-6_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation