Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Psychology of Older Adults: Exploring the Effects of Class and Culture on the Mental Health of African Americans

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Handbook of Race and Development in Mental Health

  • 1466 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter presents information on mental health issues among older African Americans, focusing on social inequality and racial discrimination as major challenges to the maintenance of mental health in this group; and extended family ties, social support, and religiosity as strengths contributing to resilience. In our discussion, we provide an overview of demographic changes in the age, race, and ethnic composition of the American population, followed by a brief review of physical and psychological health disparities between African Americans and Whites. We then explore strengths and challenges facing African Americans as they confront the possibility of mental health problems in old age as well as the results of a study of self-rated health and perceptions of depression among community-dwelling older African Americans. Finally, we discuss directions for future research and implications for mental health practitioners.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adams, V. H., & Jackson, J. S. (2000). The contribution of hope to the quality of life among African Americans, 1980–1992. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 50, 279–295.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alegria, M., Glorisa, C., Rios, R., Vera, M., Calderon, J., Rusch, D., & Ortega, A. N. (2002). Inequalities in use of specialty mental health services among Latinos, African Americans, and Non-Latino Whites. Psychiatric Services, 53(12), 1547–1555.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, R. N. (2002). Deaths: Leading causes for 2000. National vital statistics reports, 50(16), Table 1. Washington, DC: National Center for Health Statistics.

    Google Scholar 

  • Angel, R. J., & Angel, J. L. (2006). Diversity and aging in the United States. In R. H. Binstock & L. K. George (Eds.), Handbook of aging and the social sciences (pp. 94–110). Burlington: Academic.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Baker, F. M., & Bell, C. C. (1999). Issues in the psychiatric treatment of African Americans. Psychiatric Services, 50(3), 362–368.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin, J. A. (1992). The role of Black psychologists in Black liberation. In K. H. Burlew, W. C. Banks, H. P. McAdoo, & D. Ajani ya Azibo (Eds.), African American psychology: Theory, research, and practice. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Belgrave, F. Z. (1992). Improving health outcomes of African Americans: A challenge for African American psychologists. In K. H. Burlew, W. C. Banks, H. P. McAdoo, & D. Ajani ya Azibo (Eds.), African American psychology: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 356–358). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell, C. C., & Mehta, H. (1980). The misdiagnosis of Black patients with manic depressive illness. Journal of the National Medical Association, 72, 141–145.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Black, H. K. (1999). Life as gift: Spiritual narratives of elderly African-American women living in poverty. Journal of Aging Studies, 13, 441–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blazer, D. G., Burchett, B., Service, C., & George, L. K. (1991). The association of age and depression among the elderly: An epidemiologic exploration. The Journals of Gerontology: Series A46(6), M210–M215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blazer, D. G., Landerman, L. R., Hays, J. C., Simonsick, E. M., & Saunders, W. B. (1998). Symptoms of depression among community-dwelling elderly African American and White older adults. Psychological Medicine, 28, 1311–1320.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blendon, R. J., Scheck, A. C., Donelan, K., Hill, C. A., Smith, M., Beatrice, D., & Altman, D. (1995). How White and African Americans view their health and social problems: Different experiences, different expectations. Journal of the American Medical Association, 273(4), 341–346.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boyd-Franklin, N. (1989). Black families in therapy: A multisystems approach. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braithwaite, R. L., & Taylor, S. E. (1992). Health issues in the Black community. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Broman, C. L. (1993). Race differences in marital well-being. Journal of Marriage and Family, 55, 724–732.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, D. (1988). Socio-demographic vs. domain predictors of perceived stress: Racial differences among American women. Social Indicators Research, 20, 517–532.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bryant, S., & Rakowski, W. (1992). Predictors of mortality among elderly African Americans. Research on Aging, 14, 50–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burton, L., Kasper, J., Shore, A., Cagney, K., LaVesit, T., Cubbin, C., & German, P. (1995). The structure of informal care: Are there differences by race? The Gerontologist, 35, 744–752.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carney, R. M., Freedland, K. E., Veith, R. C., Cryer, P. E., Skala, J. A., Lynch, T., & Jaffe, A. S. (1999). Major depression, heart rate, and plasma norepinephrine in patients with coronary heart disease. Biological Psychiatry, 45, 458–463.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • CBS News. (2000). The black dog: Tipper Gore talks about her battle with depression. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2000/10/09/60II/main239704.shtml. Accessed 26 July 2011.

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the Merck Company Foundation. (2007). The state of aging and health in America 2007. Whitehouse Station: The Merck Company Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, H. (1993). Sites of resistance: Place, “race,” and gender as sources of empowerment. In P. E. Jackson & J. Penrose (Eds.), Constructions of race, place, and nation (pp. 121–142). London: UCL.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, J. N., & Gerlak, A. K. (1998). Environmental racism in the sunbelt? A cross-cultural analysis. Environmental Management, 22(6), 857–867.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, V. R., & Harrell, J. P. (1992). The relationship among type A behavior, styles used in coping with racism, and blood pressure. In K. H. Burlew, W. C. Banks, H. P. McAdoo, & D. Ajani ya Azibo (Eds.), African American psychology: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 359–369). Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cochran, J. K., Beeghley, L., & Bock, W. (1988). Religiosity and alcohol behavior: An exploration of reference group theory. Sociological Forum, 3(2), 256–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cockerham, W. C. (2004). Medical sociology. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cockerham, W. C. (2006). Sociology of mental disorder. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coleman, D., & Baker, F. M. (1994). Misdiagnosis of Schizophrenia among older Black Veterans. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 182, 527–528.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Connell, C. M., & Gibson, G. D. (1997). Racial, ethnic, and cultural differences in dementia caregiving: Review and analysis. The Gerontologist, 37, 355–364.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, R. S., & Rotimi, C. N. (1997). Hypertension in Blacks. American Journal of Hypertension, 10(7 pt 1), 804–816.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, R. S., Rotimi, C. N., & Ward, R. (1999). The puzzle of hypertension in African Americans. Scientific American, 280(2), 56–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cornelius, L. J. (1991). Access to medical care for Black Americans with an episode of illness. Journal of the National Medical Association, 83, 617–626.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Damon-Rodriguez, J., Wallace, S., & Kington, R. (1994). Service utilization and minority elderly: Appropriateness, accessibility and acceptability. Gerontology and Geriatrics Education, 15(1), 45–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DeLeeuw, J. R., DeGraeff, A., Ros, W. J., Hordijk, G. J., Blijham, G. H., & Winnubst, J. A. (2000). Negative and positive influences of social support on depression in patients with head and neck cancer: A prospective study. Psychooncology, 9(1), 20–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delgado, M., & Humm-Delgado, D. (1982). Natural support systems: Source of strength in Hispanic communities. Social Work, 27, 83–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, C. G. (1991). Religious involvement and subjective well-being. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 32, 80–99.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, C. G. (1994). Religion, the life stress paradigm, and the study of depression. In J. S. Levin (Ed.), Religion in aging and health: Theoretical foundations and methodological frontiers (pp. 78–121). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, C. G., & L. K. George. (1994). Religious involvement, social ties, and social support in a Southeastern community. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 33, 46–61.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellison, C. G., Boardman, J. D., Williams, D. R., & Jackson, J. S. (2001). Religious involvement, stress, and mental health. Social Forces, 80, 215–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Engram, E., & Lockery S. A. (1993). Intimate partnerships. In J. S. Jackson, L. M. Chatters, & R. J. Taylor (Eds.), Aging in Black America (pp. 84–97). Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Epstein, R. (1999). Tipper Gore and Rosalynn Carter: America’s mental health crisis. The 1999 White House Conference on Mental Health. http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-19990901-000032.html. Accessed 26 July 2011.

  • Essed, P. (1991). Understanding everyday racism: An interdisciplinary theory. Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Feagin, J., Vera, H., & Batur, P. (2001). White racism. New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • George, L. K. (2006). Perceived quality of life. In R. H. Binstock & L. K. George (Eds.), Handbook of aging and the social sciences (pp. 320–336). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, C. C., & Silverstein, M. (2001). Grandmothers who parent their grandchildren: An exploratory study of close relations across three generations. Journal of Family Issues, 22, 557–578.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gove, W., Hughes, M., & Style, C. (1983). Does marriage have positive effects on the well-being of the individual? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 122–131.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenley, J. R., & Mechanic, D. (1976). Patterns of seeking care for psychological problems. In D. Mechanic (Ed.), The growth of bureaucratic medicine (pp. 177–196). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grusky, O., & Pollner, M. (1981). The sociology of mental illness: Basic studies. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayward, M. D., & Heron, M. (1999). Racial inequality in active life among adult Americans. Demography, 36(1), 77–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayward, M. D., Crimmins, E. M., Miles, T., & Yang, Y. (2000). The significance of socioeconomic status in explaining the racial gap in chronic health conditions. American Sociological Review, 65, 910–930.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hendricks, J., & Hatch, L. R. (2006). Lifestyle and aging. In R. H. Binstock & L. K. George (Eds.), Handbook of aging and social sciences (pp. 303–320). Burlington: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hildreth and Saunders. (1992). John Henryism and the health of African Americans. Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry, 18(2), 163–182.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill, S. A. (2005). Black intimacies: A gender perspective on families and relationships. Rowman Altamira.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirschfeld, R. M., & Cross, C. K. (1982). Epidemiology of affective disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 39(1), 35–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • hooks, bell. (1990). Yearning: Race, gender, and cultural politics. Boston: South End.

    Google Scholar 

  • Horwitz, A. V., & Reinhard, S. C. (1995). Ethnic differences in care giving duties and burdens among parents and siblings of persons with severe mental illnesses. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 138–150.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howard, G., Anderson, R. T., Russell, G., Howard, V. L., & Burke, G. L. (2000). Race, Socioeconomic status and cause-specific mortality. Annals of Epidemiology, 10(4), 214–223.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Idler, E. L. (2006). Religion and aging. In R. H. Binstock & L. K. George (Eds.), Handbook of aging and the social sciences (pp. 277–300). Amsterdam: Elsevier.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Idler, E. L., & Kasl, S. V. (1992). Religion, disability, depression, and the timing of death. American Journal of Sociology, 97, 1052–1079.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jenkins, J. H., Kleinman, A., & Good, B. J. (1991). Cross-cultural studies of depression. In J. Becker & A. Kleinman (Eds.), Psychosocial aspects of depression (pp. 67–99). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katon, W., Kleinman, A., & Rosen, G. (1982). The prevalence of somatization in primary care. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 25(2), 208–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Zhao, S., Nelson, C. B., Hughes, M., Eshleman, S., Wittchen, H. U., & Kendler, K. S. (1994). Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States: Results from the national comorbidity survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 8–19.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kleinman, A. (1989). The illness narratives: Suffering, healing, and the human condition. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, K. H., & McKenry, P. C. (2002). The relationship between marriage and psychological well-being. Journal of Family Issues, 23(8), 885–911.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koenig, H. G. (1999). Late-life depression: How to treat patients with comorbid chronic illness. Geriatrics, 54, 56–61.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koenig, H. G., Meador, K. G., Goli, V., Shelp, F., Cohen, H. J., & Blazer, D. G. (1992). Self-rated depressive symptoms in medical inpatients: Age and racial differences. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 22(1), 11–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krause, N. (1993). Race differences in the life satisfaction among aged men and women. The Journals of Gerontology, 48, S235–S244.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ladner, J. A. (1998). The ties that bind: Timeless values for African American families. New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • LeClere, F. B., & Soobader, M. J. (2000). The effect of income inequality on the health of selected U. S. demographic groups. American Journal of Public Health, 90(12), 1892–1897.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leo, R. J., Narayan, D. A., Sherry, C., Michalek, C. & Pollock, D. (1997). Geropsychiatric consultation for African American and Caucasian patients. General Hospital Psychiatry, 19, 216–222.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levin, J. S., Chatters, L. M., & Taylor, R. J. (1995). Religious effects on health status and life satisfaction among Black Americans. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 50(3), S154–S163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lillie-Blanton, M., Parsons, P. E., Gayle, H., & Dievler, A. (1996). Racial differences in health: Not just Black and White, but shades of gray. Annual Review of Public Health, 17, 411–448.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lillie-Blanton, M., Brody, M., Rowland, D., Altman, D., & McIntosh, M. (2000). Race, Ethnicity, and the Health Care System: Public Perceptions and Experiences. Medical Care Research and Review, 57(1), 218–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lincoln, C. E., & Mamiya, L. (1990). The Black church in the African American experience. Durham: Duke.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindsey, M. L., & Cuellar, I. (2000). Mental health assessment and treatment of African Americans: A multicultural perspective. In I. Cuellar & F. A. Paniagua (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural health: Assessment and treatment of diverse populations. San Diego: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. (1995). Social conditions as fundamental causes of disease. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35, 80–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lopez, S. R. (2002). A research agenda to improve the accessibility and quality of mental health care for Latinos. Psychiatric Services, 53(12), 1569–1573.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luckey, I. (1994). African-American elders: The support network of generational kin. Families in Society, 75(2), 82–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mattlin, J. A., Wethington, E., & Kessler, R. (1990). Situational determinants of coping and coping effectiveness. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 31, 103–122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McAdoo, H. P. (1988). Transgenerational patterns of upward mobility in African-American families. In H. P. McAdoo (Ed.), Black families (pp. 148–168). Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKinnon, J. (2003). The Black population of the United States. Current Population Reports, P-20-541.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLeod, J. D., & Nonnemaker, J. M. (2000). Poverty and child emotional and behavioral problems: Racial/ethnic differences in processes and effects. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41, 137–161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mills, T. L. (2000). Depression, mental health, and psychological well-being among older African Americans. African-American Research Perspectives, 6, 93–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mills, T. L. (2001). Comorbid depressive symptomatology: Isolating the effects of chronic medical conditions on self-reported depressive symptoms among community-dwelling older adults. Social Science & Medicine, 53, 569–578.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mills, T. L., & Edwards, C. A. (2002). A critical review of research on the mental health status of older African Americans. Ageing & Society, 22, 273–304.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mills, T. L., Alea, N. L., & Cheong, J. A. (2004). Differences in the indicators of depressive symptoms among a community sample of African-American and Caucasian older adults. Community Mental Health Journal, 40(4), 309–331.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mills, T. L., Gomez-Smith, Z., & De Leon, J. M. (2005). Skipped generation families: Sources of psychological distress among grandmothers of grandchildren who live in homes where neither parent is present. In R. K. Caputo (Ed.), Challenges of aging on U.S. families: policy and practice implications (pp. 172–191). Binghamton: Haworth Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Minkler, M., & Fuller-Thompson, E. (1999). The health of grandparents raising grandchildren: Results of a national study. American Journal of Public Health, 89, 1384–1389.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. E. (1989). The social causes of psychological distress. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moen, P., Robison, J., & Dempster-McClain, D. (1995). Caregiving and women’s well-being: A life course approach. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 259–273.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moynihan, D. P. (1965). The Negro family: The case for national action. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mui, A. C., & Burnette, D. (1996). Coping resources and self-reported depressive symptoms among frail older ethnic women. Journal of Social Science Research, 21, 19–37.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murrell, S. A., Himmelfarb, S., & Wright, K. (1983). Prevalence of depression and its correlates in older adults. American Journal of Epidemiology, 117, 173–185.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • National Mental Health Association Survey. (1996). American attitudes about clinical depression and its treatment: Clinical depression and African Americans. http://www.nmha.org/ccd/support/africanamericanfact.cfm.

  • Neighbors, H. W., Jackson, J. S., Bowman, P. J., & Gurin, G. (1983). Stress, coping, and black mental health: Preliminary findings from a national study. Prev Human Services, 2(3), 5–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neighbors, H. W., Musick, M. A., & Williams, D. R. (1998). The African American minister as a source of help for serious personal crises: Bridge or barrier to mental health care? Health Education & Behavior, 25(6), 759–777.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pearson, J., Hunter, A., Ensminger, M., & Kellum, S. (1990). Black grandmothers in multigenerational households: Diversity in family structure and parenting involvement in the Woodlawn Community. Child Development, 161(2), 434–442.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Penninx, B. W. H. J., van Tilburg, T., Boeke, A. J. P., Deeg, D. J. H., Kriegsman, D. M. W., & Eijk, J. Th. M. (1998). Effects of social support and personal coping resources on depressive symptoms: Different for various chronic diseases? Health Psychology, 17(6), 551–558.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Penninx, B. W. H. J., van Tilburg, T., Deeg, D. J. H., Kriegsman, D. M. W., Boeke, A. J. P., & Eijk, J. T. M. (1997). Direct and buffer effects of social support and personal coping resources in individuals with arthritis. Social Science & Medicine, 44, 393–402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Picot, S. J., Dehanne, S. M., Namazi, K. H., & Wykle, M. L. (1997). Religiosity and perceived rewards of Black and White caregivers. The Gerontologist, 37(1), 89–101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pinderhughes, R. (1996). The impact of race on environmental quality: An empirical and theoretical discussion. Sociological Perspectives, 39(2), 231–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pollner, M. (1989). Divine relations, social relations, and well-being. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30, 92–104.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Preston, S. H., & Taubman, P. (1994). Socioeconomic differences in adult mortality and health status. In L. Martin & S. Preston (Eds.), Demography of aging (pp. 279–318). Washington, DC: National Academy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pruchno, R., & McKinney, D. (2002). Psychological well-being of Black and White grandmothers raising grandchildren: Examination of a two-factor model. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57, 444–452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pyke, K. D., & Bengston, V. L. (1996). Caring more or less: Individualistic and collectivistic systems of family eldercare. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 58, 379–392.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Quadagno, J. (2005). Aging and the life course: An introduction to social gerontology. Boston: McGraw Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raajpoot, U. A. (2000). Multicultural demographic developments: Current and future trends. In I. Cuellar & F. A. Paniagua (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural mental health: Assessment and treatment of diverse populations (pp. 79–94). San Diego: Academic.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Rainwater, L., & Yancey, W. L. (1967). The Moynihan report and the politics of controversy. Cambridge: MIT.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raphael, D. (2000). Health inequities in the United States: Prospects and solutions. Journal of Public Health Policy, 21(4), 394–427.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raymond, J. S., Rhoads, D. L., & Raymond, R. I. (1980). The relative impact of family and social involvement on Chicano mental health. American Journal of Community Psychology, 8(5), 557–569.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robert, S. A., & House, J. S. (2000). Socioeconomic inequalities in health: Integrating individual-, community-, and societal-level theory and research. In G. L. Albrecht, R. Fitzpatrick, & S. C. Scrimshaw (Eds.), The handbook of social studies in health and medicine (pp. 115–135). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ross, C. E. (1995). Reconceptualizing marital status as a continuum of social attachment. Journal of Marriage and Family, 57(1), 129–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross, C. E., & Mirowsky, J. (2001). Neighborhood disadvantage, disorder, and health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 42(3), 258–276.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salive, M. E., Collins, K. S., Foley, D. J., & George, L. K. (1993). Predictors of nursing home admission in a biracial population. American Journal of Public Health, 83(12), 1765–1767.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schoenbaum, M., & Waidmann, T. (1997). Race, socioeconomic status, and health: Accounting for race differences in health. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 52, 61–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seccombe, K. (2007). Families in poverty. New York: Allyn and Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seccombe, K., Clarke, L. L., & Coward, R. T. (1994). Discrepancies in employer-sponsored health insurance among Hispanics, Blacks, and Whites: The effects of sociodemographic and employment factors. Inquiry, 31, 221–229.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shea, D. G., Miles, T., & Hayward, M. (1996). The health-wealth connection: Racial differences. The Gerontologist, 36, 342–349.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, T. B., McCullough, M. E., & Poll, J. (2003). Religiousness and depression: Evidence for a main effect and the moderating influence of stressful life events. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 614–636.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • St. Jean, Y., & Feagin, J. (1997). Double burden: Black women and everyday racism. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steffens, D. C., Artigues, D. L., Ornstein, K. A., & Krishnan, K. R. R. (1997). A review of racial differences in geriatric depression: Implications for care and clinical research. Journal of the National Medical Association, 89, 731–736.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Strakowski, S. M., Lonczak, H. S., Sax, K. W., West, S. A., Crist, A., Mehtar, R., & Thienhaus, O. J. (1995). The effects of race on diagnosis and disposition from a psychiatric emergency service. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56, 101–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strakowski, S. M., Shelton, R. C., & Kolbrener, M. L. (1993). The effects of race and comorbidity on clinical diagnosis in patients with psychosis. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 54, 96–102.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, R. J., & Chatters, L. (1991). Religious life of Black Americans. In J. S. Jackson (Ed.), Life in Black America (pp. 105–123). Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tennstedt, S., & Chang, B. H. (1998). The relative contribution of ethnicity versus socioeconomic status in explaining differences in disability and receipt of informal care. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 53(2), S61–S71.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Triandis, H. (2001). Individualism and collectivism: Past, present, and future. In D. Matsumoto (Ed.), Handbook of culture and psychology (pp. 35–50). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Ness, P. H., & Larson D. B. (2002). Religion, senescence, and mental health: The end of life is not the end of hope. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 10, 386–397.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vega, W. A., & Rumbaut, R. G. (1991). Ethnic minorities and mental health. Annual Review of Sociology, 17, 351–383.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veroff, J., Kulka, R. A., & Douvan, E. (1981). Mental health in America. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waite, L. J. (1995). Does marriage matter? Demography, 32(4), 483–507.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waite, L. J., & Gallagher, M. (2000).The case for marriage: Why married people are happier, healthier, and better off financially. New York: Doubleday.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, L. G., Heys, S. D., Walker, M. B., Ogston, K., Miller, I. D., Hutcheon, A. W., Sarkar, T. K., Ah-See, A. K., & Eremin, O. (1999). Psychological factors can predict the response to primary chemotherapy in patients with locally advanced breast cancer. European Journal of Cancer, 35(13), 1783–1788.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, S. P., Levy-Storms, L., Kington, R. S., & Andersen, R. M. (1998). The persistence of race and ethnicity in the use of long-term care. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 53(2), S104–S113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whaley, A. L. (1997). Ethnicity/race, paranoia, and psychiatric diagnoses: Clinician bias versus sociocultural differences. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 19(1), 1–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, L. K. (1990). Determinants of divorce: A review of research in the eighties. Journal of Marriage and Family, 52, 904–912.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, L. K., & Rogers, S. J. (2000). Economic circumstances and family outcomes: A review of the 1990s. Journal of Marriage and Family, 62, 1035–1051.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wickrama, K. A. S., Lorenz, F. O., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H. (1997). Marital quality and physical illness: A latent growth curve analysis. Journal of Marriage and Family, 59(1), 143–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson, S., & Kitzinger, C. (2000). Thinking differently about thinking positive: A discursive approach to cancer patients’ talk. Social Science and Medicine, 50(6), 797–811.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R., & Collins, C. (1995). Socioeconomic and racial differences in health. Annual Review of Sociology, 21, 349–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R., & Harris-Reid, M. (1999). Race and mental health: Emerging patterns and promising approaches. In A. V. Horwitz & T. L. Scheid, A handbook for the study of mental health: Social contexts, theories, and systems (pp. 295–314). New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R., Takeuchi, D.T., & Adair, R. K. (1992). Marital status and psychiatric disorders among Blacks and Whites. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 33, 140–157.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, D. R., Yu, Y., Jackson, J. S., & Anderson, N. B. (1997). Racial differences in physical and mental health: Socio-economic status, stress and discrimination. Journal of Health Psychology, 2(3), 335–351.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Humanities & Social Sciences, Morehouse College, Wheeler Hall, Room 201, Atlanta, GA, USA

    Terry L. Mills

  2. Department of Cultural & Behavioral Sciences, Georgia Perimeter College, 2101 Womack Road, 30338, Dunwoody, GA, USA

    Susan Cody-Rydzewski

Authors
  1. Terry L. Mills
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Susan Cody-Rydzewski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Terry L. Mills .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Church St. 530, Ann Arbor, 48109, Michigan, USA

    Edward C. Chang

  2. , Department of Psychology, Indiana University Kokomo, 2300 S. Washington St., Kokomo, 46904, Indiana, USA

    Christina A. Downey

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Mills, T.L., Cody-Rydzewski, S. (2012). Psychology of Older Adults: Exploring the Effects of Class and Culture on the Mental Health of African Americans. In: Chang, E., Downey, C. (eds) Handbook of Race and Development in Mental Health. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0424-8_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation