Skip to main content

Pancreatic Cancer

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
  • 1132 Accesses

Abstract

Pancreatic cancer is a fatal malignancy associated with rapid progression. One year relative survival rates are less than 30 %, and nearly all patients die from the disease within 7 years of surgery. It is estimated that 43,920 men and women will be diagnosed with pancreatic cancer and 37,390 will die of the disease in 2012. Although there have been improvements made in the diagnostic and prognosis of pancreatic cancer, these changes are minor. Smoking is the only established nonheritable risk factor for pancreatic cancer; however, only about 30 % of the cases can be attributed to smoking. Although results are inconclusive, obesity, diabetes, alcohol consumption, and chronic pancreatitis have also been suggested as risk factors for pancreatic cancer. Given this poorly understood etiology, prevention of this deadly disease continues to remain a challenge.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Garcea G, Dennison AR, Pattenden CJ, Neal CP, Sutton CD, Berry DP. Survival following curative resection for pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. A systematic review of the literature. JOP. 2008;9(2):99–132.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Howlader N, Noone AM, Krapcho M, et al. SEER cancer statistics review, 1975–2009 (Vintage 2009 Populations). Bethesda: National Cancer Institute. http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2009_pops09/. Based on Nov 2011 SEER data submission, posted to the SEER web site, Apr 2012.

  3. David M, Lepage C, Jouve JL, et al. Management and prognosis of pancreatic cancer over a 30-year period. Br J Cancer. 2009;101(2):215–8.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Risch HA. Etiology of pancreatic cancer, with a hypothesis concerning the role of N-nitroso compounds and excess gastric acidity. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2003;95(13):948–60.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Lowenfels AB, Maisonneuve P. Epidemiologic and etiologic factors of pancreatic cancer. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 2002;16(1):1–16.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Dunphy EP. Pancreatic cancer: a review and update. Clin J Oncol Nurs. 2008;12(5):735–41.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Pietri F, Clavel F. Occupational exposure and cancer of the pancreas: a review. Br J Ind Med. 1991;48(9):583–7.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Seilkop SK. Occupational exposures and pancreatic cancer: a meta-analysis. Occup Environ Med. 2001;58(1):63–4.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Chiazze Jr L, Ference LD. Mortality among PVC-fabricating employees. Environ Health Perspect. 1981;41:137–43.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Decoufle P. Further analysis of cancer mortality patterns among workers exposed to cutting oil mists. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1978;61(4):1025–30.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Hanis NM, Holmes TM, Shallenberger G, Jones KE. Epidemiologic study of refinery and chemical plant workers. J Occup Med. 1982;24(3):203–12.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Li FP, Fraumeni Jr JF, Mantel N, Miller RW. Cancer mortality among chemists. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1969;43(5):1159–64.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Milham Jr S. Cancer mortality pattern associated with exposure to metals. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1976;271:243–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Williams RR, Stegens NL, Goldsmith JR. Associations of cancer site and type with occupation and industry from the Third National Cancer Survey Interview. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1977;59(4):1147–85.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Howe GR, Fraser D, Lindsay J, Presnal B, Yu SZ. Cancer mortality (1965-77) in relation to diesel fume and coal exposure in a cohort of retired railway workers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1983;70(6):1015–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Rockette HE, Arena VC. Mortality studies of aluminum reduction plant workers: potroom and carbon department. J Occup Med. 1983;25(7):549–57.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Acheson ED, Gardner MJ, Winter PD, Bennett C. Cancer in a factory using amosite asbestos. Int J Epidemiol. 1984;13(1):3–10.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Bond GG, Reeve GR, Ott MG, Waxweiler RJ. Mortality among a sample of chemical company employees. Am J Ind Med. 1985;7(2):109–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Decoufle P, Blattner WA, Blair A. Mortality among chemical workers exposed to benzene and other agents. Environ Res. 1983;30(1):16–25.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Elinder CG, Kjellstrom T, Hogstedt C, Andersson K, Spang G. Cancer mortality of cadmium workers. Br J Ind Med. 1985;42(10):651–5.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Lynge E. A follow-up study of cancer incidence among workers in manufacture of phenoxy herbicides in Denmark. Br J Cancer. 1985;52(2):259–70.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Milham Jr S. Mortality in workers exposed to electromagnetic fields. Environ Health Perspect. 1985;62:297–300.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Ott MG, Carlo GL, Steinberg S, Bond GG. Mortality among employees engaged in chemical manufacturing and related activities. Am J Epidemiol. 1985;122(2):311–22.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Vena JE, Sultz HA, Fiedler RC, Barnes RE. Mortality of workers in an automobile engine and parts manufacturing complex. Br J Ind Med. 1985;42(2):85–93.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Wen CP, Tsai SP, Weiss NS, Gibson RL, Wong O, McClellan WA. Long-term mortality study of oil refinery workers. IV. Exposure to the lubricating-dewaxing process. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1985;74(1):11–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Zoloth SR, Michaels DM, Villalbi JR, Lacher M. Patterns of mortality among commercial pressmen. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1986;76(6):1047–51.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Coggon D, Pannett B, Winter PD, Acheson ED, Bonsall J. Mortality of workers exposed to 2 methyl-4 chlorophenoxyacetic acid. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1986;12(5):448–54.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Boffetta P, Stellman SD, Garfinkel L. Diesel exhaust exposure and mortality among males in the American Cancer Society prospective study. Am J Ind Med. 1988;14(4):403–15.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Brown DP. Mortality of workers exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls–an update. Arch Environ Health. 1987;42(6):333–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Enterline PE, Hartley J, Henderson V. Asbestos and cancer: a cohort followed up to death. Br J Ind Med. 1987;44(6):396–401.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Hansen ES. Mortality of auto mechanics. A ten-year follow-up. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1989;15(1):43–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Silverstein M, Park R, Marmor M, Maizlish N, Mirer F. Mortality among bearing plant workers exposed to metalworking fluids and abrasives. J Occup Med. 1988;30(9):706–14.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Smulevich VB, Fedotova IV, Filatova VS. Increasing evidence of the rise of cancer in workers exposed to vinylchloride. Br J Ind Med. 1988;45(2):93–7.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Wong O. An industry wide mortality study of chemical workers occupationally exposed to benzene. I. General results. Br J Ind Med. 1987;44(6):365–81.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Acquavella J, Leet T, Johnson G. Occupational experience and mortality among a cohort of metal components manufacturing workers. Epidemiology. 1993;4(5):428–34.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Benson LO, Teta MJ. Mortality due to pancreatic and lymphopoietic cancers in chlorohydrin production workers. Br J Ind Med. 1993;50(8):710–6.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Costantini AS, Paci E, Miligi L, Buiatti E, Martelli C, Lenzi S. Cancer mortality among workers in the Tuscan tanning industry. Br J Ind Med. 1989;46(6):384–8.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Gardner MJ, Pannett B, Winter PD, Cruddas AM. A cohort study of workers exposed to formaldehyde in the British chemical industry: an update. Br J Ind Med. 1993;50(9):827–34.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Gustavsson P, Reuterwall C. Mortality and incidence of cancer among Swedish gas workers. Br J Ind Med. 1990;47(3):169–74.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Hearne FT, Pifer JW, Grose F. Absence of adverse mortality effects in workers exposed to methylene chloride: an update. J Occup Med. 1990;32(3):234–40.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Lanes SF, Rothman KJ, Dreyer NA, Soden KJ. Mortality update of cellulose fiber production workers. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1993;19(6):426–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Langard S, Andersen A, Ravnestad J. Incidence of cancer among ferrochromium and ferrosilicon workers: an extended observation period. Br J Ind Med. 1990;47(1):14–9.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. McDonald JC, Liddell FD, Dufresne A, McDonald AD. The 1891-1920 birth cohort of Quebec chrysotile miners and millers: mortality 1976-88. Br J Ind Med. 1993;50(12):1073–81.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Anttila A, Pukkala E, Sallmen M, Hernberg S, Hemminki K. Cancer incidence among Finnish workers exposed to halogenated hydrocarbons. J Occup Environ Med. 1995;37(7):797–806.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Asp S, Riihimaki V, Hernberg S, Pukkala E. Mortality and cancer morbidity of Finnish chlorophenoxy herbicide applicators: an 18-year prospective follow-up. Am J Ind Med. 1994;26(2):243–53.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Axelson O, Selden A, Andersson K, Hogstedt C. Updated and expanded Swedish cohort study on trichloroethylene and cancer risk. J Occup Med. 1994;36(5):556–62.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Baris D, Armstrong BG, Deadman J, Theriault G. A mortality study of electrical utility workers in Quebec. Occup Environ Med. 1996;53(1):25–31.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Boffetta P, Saracci R, Andersen A, et al. Cancer mortality among man-made vitreous fiber production workers. Epidemiology. 1997;8(3):259–68.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Brown DP, Dement JM, Okun A. Mortality patterns among female and male chrysotile asbestos textile workers. J Occup Med. 1994;36(8):882–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Enterline PE, Day R, Marsh GM. Cancers related to exposure to arsenic at a copper smelter. Occup Environ Med. 1995;52(1):28–32.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Gibbs GW, Amsel J, Soden K. A cohort mortality study of cellulose triacetate-fiber workers exposed to methylene chloride. J Occup Environ Med. 1996;38(7):693–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Hansen J, Olsen JH. Formaldehyde and cancer morbidity among male employees in Denmark. Cancer Causes Control. 1995;6(4):354–60.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Wong O, Trent LS, Whorton MD. An updated cohort mortality study of workers exposed to styrene in the reinforced plastics and composites industry. Occup Environ Med. 1994;51(6):386–96.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Yassi A, Tate R, Fish D. Cancer mortality in workers employed at a transformer manufacturing plant. Am J Ind Med. 1994;25(3):425–37.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Alguacil J, Pollan M, Gustavsson P. Occupations with increased risk of pancreatic cancer in the Swedish population. Occup Environ Med. 2003;60(8):570–6.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Anttila A, Pukkala E, Riala R, Sallmen M, Hemminki K. Cancer incidence among Finnish workers exposed to aromatic hydrocarbons. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 1998;71(3):187–93.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Cocco P, Blair A, Congia P, Saba G, Ecca AR, Palmas C. Long-term health effects of the occupational exposure to DDT. A preliminary report. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1997;837:246–56.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Cocco P, Hua F, Boffetta P, et al. Mortality of Italian lead smelter workers. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1997;23(1):15–23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Hooiveld M, Heederik DJ, Kogevinas M, et al. Second follow-up of a Dutch cohort occupationally exposed to phenoxy herbicides, chlorophenols, and contaminants. Am J Epidemiol. 1998;147(9):891–901.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Jarup L, Bellander T, Hogstedt C, Spang G. Mortality and cancer incidence in Swedish battery workers exposed to cadmium and nickel. Occup Environ Med. 1998;55(11):755–9.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Kogevinas M, Becher H, Benn T, et al. Cancer mortality in workers exposed to phenoxy herbicides, chlorophenols, and dioxins. An expanded and updated international cohort study. Am J Epidemiol. 1997;145(12):1061–75.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Rafnsson V. Incidence of cancer among bookbinders, printers, photoengravers, and typesetters. Occup Environ Med. 2001;58(8):523–7.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Sathiakumar N, Delzell E, Hovinga M, et al. Mortality from cancer and other causes of death among synthetic rubber workers. Occup Environ Med. 1998;55(4):230–5.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Wiebelt H, Becker N. Mortality in a cohort of toluene exposed employees (rotogravure printing plant workers). J Occup Environ Med. 1999;41(12):1134–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Falk RT, Pickle LW, Fontham ET, et al. Occupation and pancreatic cancer risk in Louisiana. Am J Ind Med. 1990;18(5):565–76.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Garabrant DH, Held J, Langholz B, Peters JM, Mack TM. DDT and related compounds and risk of pancreatic cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1992;84(10):764–71.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Lin RS, Kessler II. A multifactorial model for pancreatic cancer in man. Epidemiologic evidence. JAMA. 1981;245(2):147–52.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Mack TM, Peters JM, Yu MC, Hanisch R, Wright WE, Henderson BE. Pancreas cancer is unrelated to the workplace in Los Angeles. Am J Ind Med. 1985;7(3):253–66.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Magnani C, Coggon D, Osmond C, Acheson ED. Occupation and five cancers: a case-control study using death certificates. Br J Ind Med. 1987;44(11):769–76.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Pickle LW, Gottlieb MS. Pancreatic cancer mortality in Louisiana. Am J Public Health. 1980;70(3):256–9.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Pietri F, Clavel F, Auquier A, Flamant R. Occupational risk factors for cancer of the pancreas: a case-control study. Br J Ind Med. 1990;47(6):425–8.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Mallin K, Rubin M, Joo E. Occupational cancer mortality in Illinois white and black males, 1979–1984, for seven cancer sites. Am J Ind Med. 1989;15(6):699–717.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Alguacil J, Porta M, Benavides FG, et al. Occupation and pancreatic cancer in Spain: a case-control study based on job titles. PANKRAS II Study Group. Int J Epidemiol. 2000;29(6):1004–13.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Alguacil J, Porta M, Malats N, et al. Occupational exposure to organic solvents and K-ras mutations in exocrine pancreatic cancer. Carcinogenesis. 2002;23(1):101–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Bardin JA, Eisen EA, Tolbert PE, et al. Mortality studies of machining fluid exposure in the automobile industry. V: a case-control study of pancreatic cancer. Am J Ind Med. 1997;32(3):240–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Ji BT, Silverman DT, Dosemeci M, Dai Q, Gao YT, Blair A. Occupation and pancreatic cancer risk in Shanghai, China. Am J Ind Med. 1999;35(1):76–81.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Kauppinen T, Partanen T, Degerth R, Ojajarvi A. Pancreatic cancer and occupational exposures. Epidemiology. 1995;6(5):498–502.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Kernan GJ, Ji BT, Dosemeci M, Silverman DT, Balbus J, Zahm SH. Occupational risk factors for pancreatic cancer: a case-control study based on death certificates from 24 U.S. states. Am J Ind Med. 1999;36(2):260–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Mikoczy Z, Schutz A, Stromberg U, Hagmar L. Cancer incidence and specific occupational exposures in the Swedish leather tanning industry: a cohort based case-control study. Occup Environ Med. 1996;53(7):463–7.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Partanen T, Kauppinen T, Degerth R, et al. Pancreatic cancer in industrial branches and occupations in Finland. Am J Ind Med. 1994;25(6):851–66.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Selenskas S, Teta MJ, Vitale JN. Pancreatic cancer among workers processing synthetic resins. Am J Ind Med. 1995;28(3):385–98.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Zhang Y, Cantor KP, Lynch CF, Zhu Y, Zheng T. Occupation and risk of pancreatic cancer: a population-based case-control study in Iowa. J Occup Environ Med. 2005;47(4):392–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Santibanez M, Vioque J, Alguacil J, et al. Occupational exposures and risk of pancreatic cancer. Eur J Epidemiol. 2010;25(10):721–30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Milham S. Occupational mortality in Washington State, 1950–1989. Cincinnati, DHHS (NIOSH) publication No. 96–133, 1997, p. 56.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Ojajarvi IA, Partanen TJ, Ahlbom A, et al. Occupational exposures and pancreatic cancer: a meta-analysis. Occup Environ Med. 2000;57(5):316–24.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  86. Maruchi N, Brian D, Ludwig J, Elveback LR, Kurland LT. Cancer of the pancreas in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1935–1974. Mayo Clin Proc. 1979;54(4):245–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Lloyd JW, Decoufle P, Salvin LG. Unusual mortality experience of printing pressmen. J Occup Med. 1977;19(8):543–50.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Wingren G, Persson B, Thoren K, Axelson O. Mortality pattern among pulp and paper mill workers in Sweden: a case-referent study. Am J Ind Med. 1991;20(6):769–74.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Mastrangelo G, Fadda E, Marzia V. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and cancer in man. Environ Health Perspect. 1996;104(11):1166–70.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Calvert GM, Ward E, Schnorr TM, Fine LJ. Cancer risks among workers exposed to metalworking fluids: a systematic review. Am J Ind Med. 1998;33(3):282–92.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Milham S. Occupational mortality in Washington State, 1950–1979. Washington, DC: US NIOSH publication No 83–116; 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Cantor KP, Silberman W. Mortality among aerial pesticide applicators and flight instructors: follow-up from 1965–1988. Am J Ind Med. 1999;36(2):239–47.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. Porta M, Malats N, Jariod M, et al. Serum concentrations of organochlorine compounds and K-ras mutations in exocrine pancreatic cancer. PANKRAS II Study Group. Lancet. 1999;354(9196):2125–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Hanley AJ, Johnson KC, Villeneuve PJ, Mao Y. Physical activity, anthropometric factors and risk of pancreatic cancer: results from the Canadian enhanced cancer surveillance system. Int J Cancer. 2001;94(1):140–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Stolzenberg-Solomon RZ, Pietinen P, Taylor PR, Virtamo J, Albanes D. A prospective study of medical conditions, anthropometry, physical activity, and pancreatic cancer in male smokers (Finland). Cancer Causes Control. 2002;13(5):417–26.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Iodice S, Gandini S, Maisonneuve P, Lowenfels AB. Tobacco and the risk of pancreatic cancer: a review and meta-analysis. Langenbecks Arch Surg. 2008;393(4):535–45.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Lynch SM, Vrieling A, Lubin JH, et al. Cigarette smoking and pancreatic cancer: a pooled analysis from the pancreatic cancer cohort consortium. Am J Epidemiol. 2009;170(4):403–13.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Brownson RC, Figgs LW, Caisley LE. Epidemiology of environmental tobacco smoke exposure. Oncogene. 2002;21(48):7341–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Gallicchio L, Kouzis A, Genkinger JM, et al. Active cigarette smoking, household passive smoke exposure, and the risk of developing pancreatic cancer. Prev Med. 2006;42(3):200–5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Villeneuve PJ, Johnson KC, Mao Y, Hanley AJ. Environmental tobacco smoke and the risk of pancreatic cancer: findings from a Canadian population-based case-control study. Can J Public Health. 2004;95(1):32–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Tranah GJ, Holly EA, Wang F, Bracci PM. Cigarette, cigar and pipe smoking, passive smoke exposure, and risk of pancreatic cancer: a population-based study in the San Francisco Bay Area. BMC Cancer. 2011;11:138.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans, vol. 96. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2010. Alcohol consumption and ethyl carbamate.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Falk RT, Pickle LW, Fontham ET, Correa P, Fraumeni Jr JF. Life-style risk factors for pancreatic cancer in Louisiana: a case-control study. Am J Epidemiol. 1988;128(2):324–36.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Cuzick J, Babiker AG. Pancreatic cancer, alcohol, diabetes mellitus and gall-bladder disease. Int J Cancer. 1989;43(3):415–21.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Olsen GW, Mandel JS, Gibson RW, Wattenberg LW, Schuman LM. A case-control study of pancreatic cancer and cigarettes, alcohol, coffee and diet. Am J Public Health. 1989;79(8):1016–9.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Hassan MM, Bondy ML, Wolff RA, et al. Risk factors for pancreatic cancer: case-control study. Am J Gastroenterol. 2007;102(12):2696–707.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Suzuki T, Matsuo K, Sawaki A, et al. Alcohol drinking and one-carbon metabolism-related gene polymorphisms on pancreatic cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2008;17(10):2742–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Talamini R, Polesel J, Gallus S, et al. Tobacco smoking, alcohol consumption and pancreatic cancer risk: a case-control study in Italy. Eur J Cancer. 2010;46(2):370–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Heuch I, Kvale G, Jacobsen BK, Bjelke E. Use of alcohol, tobacco and coffee, and risk of pancreatic cancer. Br J Cancer. 1983;48(5):637–43.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Zheng W, McLaughlin JK, Gridley G, et al. A cohort study of smoking, alcohol consumption, and dietary factors for pancreatic cancer (United States). Cancer Causes Control. 1993;4(5):477–82.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Harnack LJ, Anderson KE, Zheng W, Folsom AR, Sellers TA, Kushi LH. Smoking, alcohol, coffee, and tea intake and incidence of cancer of the exocrine pancreas: the Iowa Women’s Health Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1997;6(12):1081–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Heinen MM, Verhage BA, Ambergen TA, Goldbohm RA, van den Brandt PA. Alcohol consumption and risk of pancreatic cancer in the Netherlands cohort study. Am J Epidemiol. 2009;169(10):1233–42.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Jiao L, Silverman DT, Schairer C, et al. Alcohol use and risk of pancreatic cancer: the NIH-AARP diet and health study. Am J Epidemiol. 2009;169(9):1043–51.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Silverman DT, Brown LM, Hoover RN, et al. Alcohol and pancreatic cancer in blacks and whites in the United States. Cancer Res. 1995;55(21):4899–905.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Lucenteforte E, La Vecchia C, Silverman D, et al. Alcohol consumption and pancreatic cancer: a pooled analysis in the International Pancreatic Cancer Case-Control Consortium (PanC4). Ann Oncol. 2012; 23(2):374–82.

    Google Scholar 

  116. MacMahon B, Yen S, Trichopoulos D, Warren K, Nardi G. Coffee and cancer of the pancreas. N Engl J Med. 1981;304(11):630–3.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. Turati F, Galeone C, Talamini R, et al. Coffee, decaffeinated coffee, tea, and pancreatic cancer risk: a pooled-analysis of two Italian case-control studies. Eur J Cancer Prev. 2011;20(4):287–92.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Dong J, Zou J, Yu XF. Coffee drinking and pancreatic cancer risk: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. World J Gastroenterol. 2011;17(9):1204–10.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective. Washington, DC: AICR; 2007. p. 211–42.

    Google Scholar 

  120. Mills PK, Beeson WL, Abbey DE, Fraser GE, Phillips RL. Dietary habits and past medical history as related to fatal pancreas cancer risk among Adventists. Cancer. 1988;61(12):2578–85.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Shibata A, Mack TM, Paganini-Hill A, Ross RK, Henderson BE. A prospective study of pancreatic cancer in the elderly. Int J Cancer. 1994;58(1):46–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. Stolzenberg-Solomon RZ, Pietinen P, Taylor PR, Virtamo J, Albanes D. Prospective study of diet and pancreatic cancer in male smokers. Am J Epidemiol. 2002;155(9):783–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Silverman DT, Swanson CA, Gridley G, et al. Dietary and nutritional factors and pancreatic cancer: a case-control study based on direct interviews. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1998;90(22):1710–9.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Nkondjock A, Krewski D, Johnson KC, Ghadirian P. Dietary patterns and risk of pancreatic cancer. Int J Cancer. 2005;114(5):817–23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Chan JM, Wang F, Holly EA. Vegetable and fruit intake and pancreatic cancer in a population-based case-control study in the San Francisco bay area. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2005;14(9):2093–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Stolzenberg-Solomon RZ, Albanes D, Nieto FJ, et al. Pancreatic cancer risk and nutrition-related methyl-group availability indicators in male smokers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999;91(6):535–41.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Howe GR, Ghadirian P, Bueno de Mesquita HB, et al. A collaborative case-control study of nutrient intake and pancreatic cancer within the search programme. Int J Cancer. 1992;51(3):365–72.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. Zatonski W, Przewozniak K, Howe GR, Maisonneuve P, Walker AM, Boyle P. Nutritional factors and pancreatic cancer: a case-control study from south-west Poland. Int J Cancer. 1991;48(3):390–4.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Olsen GW, Mandel JS, Gibson RW, Wattenberg LW, Schuman LM. Nutrients and pancreatic cancer: a population-based case-control study. Cancer Causes Control. 1991;2(5):291–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Nkondjock A, Ghadirian P, Johnson KC, Krewski D. Dietary intake of lycopene is associated with reduced pancreatic cancer risk. J Nutr. 2005;135(3):592–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Gong Z, Holly EA, Wang F, Chan JM, Bracci PM. Intake of fatty acids and antioxidants and pancreatic cancer in a large population-based case-control study in the San Francisco Bay Area. Int J Cancer. 2010;127(8):1893–904.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Larsson SC, Hakanson N, Permert J, Wolk A. Meat, fish, poultry and egg consumption in relation to risk of pancreatic cancer: a prospective study. Int J Cancer. 2006;118(11):2866–70.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Nothlings U, Wilkens LR, Murphy SP, Hankin JH, Henderson BE, Kolonel LN. Meat and fat intake as risk factors for pancreatic cancer: the multiethnic cohort study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2005;97(19):1458–65.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Chan JM, Wang F, Holly EA. Pancreatic cancer, animal protein and dietary fat in a population-based study, San Francisco Bay Area, California. Cancer Causes Control. 2007;18(10):1153–67.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Michaud DS, Giovannucci E, Willett WC, Colditz GA, Fuchs CS. Dietary meat, dairy products, fat, and cholesterol and pancreatic cancer risk in a prospective study. Am J Epidemiol. 2003;157(12):1115–25.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Coughlin SS, Calle EE, Patel AV, Thun MJ. Predictors of pancreatic cancer mortality among a large cohort of United States adults. Cancer Causes Control. 2000;11(10):915–23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Ben Q, Xu M, Ning X, et al. Diabetes mellitus and risk of pancreatic cancer: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Eur J Cancer. 2011;47:1928–37.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. Lowenfels AB, Maisonneuve P, Cavallini G, et al. Pancreatitis and the risk of pancreatic cancer. International Pancreatitis Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1993;328(20):1433–7.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Freelove R, Walling AD. Pancreatic cancer: diagnosis and management. Am Fam Physician. 2006;73(3):485–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  140. Lauwers GY, Mino-Kenudson M, Rubin R. The pancreas. In: Rubin R, Strayer D, editors. Rubin’s pathology: clinicopathologic foundations of medicine. 5th ed. Baltimore: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams& Wilkins; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  141. Malesci A, Montorsi M, Mariani A, et al. Clinical utility of the serum CA 19-9 test for diagnosing pancreatic carcinoma in symptomatic patients: a prospective study. Pancreas. 1992;7(4):497–502.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Montgomery RC, Hoffman JP, Riley LB, Rogatko A, Ridge JA, Eisenberg BL. Prediction of recurrence and survival by post-resection CA 19-9 values in patients with adenocarcinoma of the pancreas. Ann Surg Oncol. 1997;4(7):551–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  143. Koopmann J, Buckhaults P, Brown DA, et al. Serum macrophage inhibitory cytokine 1 as a marker of pancreatic and other periampullary cancers. Clin Cancer Res. 2004;10(7):2386–92.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  144. Koopmann J, Rosenzweig CN, Zhang Z, et al. Serum markers in patients with resectable pancreatic adenocarcinoma: macrophage inhibitory cytokine 1 versus CA19-9. Clin Cancer Res. 2006;12(2):442–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Koopmann J, Fedarko NS, Jain A, et al. Evaluation of osteopontin as biomarker for pancreatic adenocarcinoma. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2004;13(3):487–91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Zhou W, Sokoll LJ, Bruzek DJ, et al. Identifying markers for pancreatic cancer by gene expression analysis. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1998;7(2):109–12.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Argani P, Iacobuzio-Donahue C, Ryu B, et al. Mesothelin is overexpressed in the vast majority of ductal adenocarcinomas of the pancreas: identification of a new pancreatic cancer marker by Serial Analysis of Gene Expression (SAGE). Clin Cancer Res. 2001;7(12):3862–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Chen R, Pan S, Cooke K, et al. Comparison of pancreas juice proteins from cancer versus pancreatitis using quantitative proteomic analysis. Pancreas. 2007;34(1):70–9.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Gronborg M, Bunkenborg J, Kristiansen TZ, et al. Comprehensive proteomic analysis of human pancreatic juice. J Proteome Res. 2004;3(5):1042–55.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. Rosty C, Goggins M. Early detection of pancreatic carcinoma. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 2002;16(1):37–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. Hruban RH, Goggins M, Parsons J, Kern SE. Progression model for pancreatic cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2000;6(8):2969–72.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Wilentz RE, Iacobuzio-Donahue CA, Argani P, et al. Loss of expression of Dpc4 in pancreatic intraepithelial neoplasia: evidence that DPC4 inactivation occurs late in neoplastic progression. Cancer Res. 2000;60(7):2002–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  153. Mazaki T, Masuda H, Takayama T. Polymorphisms and pancreatic cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Eur J Cancer Prev. 2011;20:169–83.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  154. Almoguera C, Shibata D, Forrester K, Martin J, Arnheim N, Perucho M. Most human carcinomas of the exocrine pancreas contain mutant c-K-ras genes. Cell. 1988;53(4):549–54.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Aspinall RJ, Lemoine NR. Gene therapy for pancreatic and biliary malignancies. Ann Oncol. 1999;10 Suppl 4:188–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Schutte M, Hruban RH, Geradts J, et al. Abrogation of the Rb/p16 tumor-suppressive pathway in virtually all pancreatic carcinomas. Cancer Res. 1997;57(15):3126–30.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  157. Cowgill SM, Muscarella P. The genetics of pancreatic cancer. Am J Surg. 2003;186(3):279–86.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. Sohn TA, Yeo CJ. The molecular genetics of pancreatic ductal carcinoma: a review. Surg Oncol. 2000;9(3):95–101.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. Lowenfels AB, Maisonneuve P. Epidemiology and risk factors for pancreatic cancer. Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2006;20(2):197–209.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. Li D, Xie K, Wolff R, Abbruzzese JL. Pancreatic cancer. Lancet. 2004;363(9414):1049–57.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Jiao L, Bondy ML, Hassan MM, et al. Glutathione S-transferase gene polymorphisms and risk and survival of pancreatic cancer. Cancer. 2007;109(5):840–8.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  162. Lee HC, Yoon YB, Kim CY. Association between genetic polymorphisms of the cytochromes P-450 (1A1, 2D6, and 2E1) and the susceptibility to pancreatic cancer. Korean J Intern Med. 1997;12(2):128–36.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. Bartsch H, Malaveille C, Lowenfels AB, Maisonneuve P, Hautefeuille A, Boyle P. Genetic polymorphism of N-acetyltransferases, glutathione S-transferase M1 and NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase in relation to malignant and benign pancreatic disease risk. The International Pancreatic Disease Study Group. Eur J Cancer Prev. 1998;7(3):215–23.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. Liu G, Ghadirian P, Vesprini D, et al. Polymorphisms in GSTM1, GSTT1 and CYP1A1 and risk of pancreatic adenocarcinoma. Br J Cancer. 2000;82(10):1646–9.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. Duell EJ, Holly EA, Bracci PM, Liu M, Wiencke JK, Kelsey KT. A population-based, case-control study of polymorphisms in carcinogen-metabolizing genes, smoking, and pancreatic adenocarcinoma risk. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2002;94(4):297–306.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  166. Ockenga J, Vogel A, Teich N, Keim V, Manns MP, Strassburg CP. UDP glucuronosyltransferase (UGT1A7) gene polymorphisms increase the risk of chronic pancreatitis and pancreatic cancer. Gastroenterology. 2003;124(7):1802–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Piepoli A, Gentile A, Valvano MR, et al. Lack of association between UGT1A7, UGT1A9, ARP, SPINK1 and CFTR gene polymorphisms and pancreatic cancer in Italian patients. World J Gastroenterol. 2006;12(39):6343–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  168. Li D, Jiao L, Li Y, et al. Polymorphisms of cytochrome P4501A2 and N-acetyltransferase genes, smoking, and risk of pancreatic cancer. Carcinogenesis. 2006;27(1):103–11.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. Verlaan M, Drenth JP, Truninger K, et al. Polymorphisms of UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1A7 are not involved in pancreatic diseases. J Med Genet. 2005;42(10):e62.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. Vrana D, Pikhart H, Mohelnikova-Duchonova B, et al. The association between glutathione S-transferase gene polymorphisms and pancreatic cancer in a central European Slavonic population. Mutat Res. 2009;680(1–2):78–81.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. Jiao L, Bondy ML, Hassan MM, et al. Selected polymorphisms of DNA repair genes and risk of pancreatic cancer. Cancer Detect Prev. 2006;30(3):284–91.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  172. Jiao L, Hassan MM, Bondy ML, et al. XRCC2 and XRCC3 gene polymorphism and risk of pancreatic cancer. Am J Gastroenterol. 2008;103(2):360–7.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. Jiao L, Hassan MM, Bondy ML, Abbruzzese JL, Evans DB, Li D. The XPD Asp312Asn and Lys751Gln polymorphisms, corresponding haplotype, and pancreatic cancer risk. Cancer Lett. 2007;245(1–2):61–8.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. Duell EJ, Holly EA, Bracci PM, Wiencke JK, Kelsey KT. A population-based study of the Arg399Gln polymorphism in X-ray repair cross- complementing group 1 (XRCC1) and risk of pancreatic adenocarcinoma. Cancer Res. 2002;62(16):4630–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  175. McWilliams RR, Bamlet WR, Cunningham JM, et al. Polymorphisms in DNA repair genes, smoking, and pancreatic adenocarcinoma risk. Cancer Res. 2008;68(12):4928–35.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  176. Wang L, Lin DX, Lu XH, Miao XP, Li H. Polymorphisms of the DNA repair genes XRCC1 and XPC: relationship to pancreatic cancer risk. Wei Sheng Yan Jiu. 2006;35(5):534–6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  177. Li D, Suzuki H, Liu B, et al. DNA repair gene polymorphisms and risk of pancreatic cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2009;15(2):740–6.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  178. Reid-Lombardo KM, Fridley BL, Bamlet WR, Cunningham JM, Sarr MG, Petersen GM. Inflammation-related gene variants as risk factors for pancreatic cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2011;20(6):1251–4.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. Duell EJ, Casella DP, Burk RD, Kelsey KT, Holly EA. Inflammation, genetic polymorphisms in proinflammatory genes TNF-A, RANTES, and CCR5, and risk of pancreatic adenocarcinoma. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2006;15(4):726–31.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. Miyasaka K, Kawanami T, Shimokata H, Ohta S, Funakoshi A. Inactive aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 increased the risk of pancreatic cancer among smokers in a Japanese male population. Pancreas. 2005;30(2):95–8.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. Kanda J, Matsuo K, Suzuki T, et al. Impact of alcohol consumption with polymorphisms in alcohol-metabolizing enzymes on pancreatic cancer risk in Japanese. Cancer Sci. 2009;100(2): 296–302.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. Li D, Ahmed M, Li Y, et al. 5,10-Methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase polymorphisms and the risk of pancreatic cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2005;14(6):1470–6.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. Matsubayashi H, Skinner HG, Iacobuzio-Donahue C, et al. Pancreaticobiliary cancers with deficient methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase genotypes. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005;3(8):752–60.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  184. Wang L, Miao X, Tan W, et al. Genetic polymorphisms in methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase and thymidylate synthase and risk of pancreatic cancer. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005;3(8): 743–51.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  185. Matsubayashi H, Fukushima N, Sato N, et al. Polymorphisms of SPINK1 N34S and CFTR in patients with sporadic and familial pancreatic cancer. Cancer Biol Ther. 2003;2(6):652–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. Lempinen M, Paju A, Kemppainen E, et al. Mutations N34S and P55S of the SPINK1 gene in patients with chronic pancreatitis or pancreatic cancer and in healthy subjects: a report from Finland. Scand J Gastroenterol. 2005;40(2):225–30.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  187. Teich N, Schulz HU, Witt H, Bohmig M, Keim V. N34S, a pancreatitis associated SPINK1 mutation, is not associated with sporadic pancreatic cancer. Pancreatology. 2003;3(1):67–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. Dong X, Li Y, Chang P, et al. Glucose metabolism gene variants modulate the risk of pancreatic cancer. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2011;4(5):758–66.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Amundadottir L, Kraft P, Stolzenberg-Solomon RZ, et al. Genome-wide association study identifies variants in the ABO locus associated with susceptibility to pancreatic cancer. Nat Genet. 2009;41(9):986–90.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. Petersen GM, Amundadottir L, Fuchs CS, et al. A genome-wide association study identifies pancreatic cancer susceptibility loci on chromosomes 13q22.1, 1q32.1 and 5p15.33. Nat Genet. 2010;42(3):224–8.

    CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Yawei Zhang MD, PhD, MPH .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer-Verlag London

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Chen, Y., Wang, C., Zhang, Y. (2014). Pancreatic Cancer. In: Anttila, S., Boffetta, P. (eds) Occupational Cancers. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-2825-0_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-2825-0_5

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4471-2824-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4471-2825-0

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics