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Handbook of Identity Theory and Research pp 329–355Cite as

High Self-Esteem: Multiple Forms and Their Outcomes

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Abstract

Self-esteem has been empirically investigated extensively and has become deeply ingrained in the social and popular conscience. Varied definitions of self-esteem across disciplines and perspectives and inconsistent empirical findings with self-esteem have yielded a messy research literature and have produced many lingering questions. In this chapter, we briefly review the “mess” of self-esteem, first focusing on its inconsistent empirical findings. Then, we propose a differentiated view of high self-esteem as being either fragile or secure, and how this differentiated view can help “clear the waters” of self-esteem research. Next, we highlight self-esteem’s importance in personal and cultural identity processes, examining in particular potential cultural changes influenced by the concept of high self-esteem. Finally, we discuss where self-esteem comes from and how we can cultivate “healthy” self-esteem, and we discuss two individual difference measures—authenticity and mindfulness—that relate to secure self-esteem processes.

†Michael H. Kernis passed away during the formulation of this chapter. He is included as an author to acknowledge his immense influence on what was written, as well as to honor his memory and his passion for self-esteem research.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Health Disparities Research (Unit 1440), University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA

    Whitney L. Heppner Ph.D.

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Georgia, Houston, TX, USA

    Michael H. Kernis† Ph.D.

Authors
  1. Whitney L. Heppner Ph.D.
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  2. Michael H. Kernis† Ph.D.
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Correspondence to Whitney L. Heppner Ph.D. .

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Editors and Affiliations

  1. Leonard M. Miller School of Medicine, Department of Epidemiology and Public He, University of Miami, N.W. 10th Avenue, Suite 321 1425, Miami, 33136, Florida, USA

    Seth J. Schwartz

  2. , Department of Psychology, Catholic University of Leuven, Tiensestraat 102, Leuven, 3000, Belgium

    Koen Luyckx

  3. School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, BN1 9QH, United Kingdom

    Vivian L. Vignoles

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Heppner, W.L., Kernis†, M.H. (2011). High Self-Esteem: Multiple Forms and Their Outcomes. In: Schwartz, S., Luyckx, K., Vignoles, V. (eds) Handbook of Identity Theory and Research. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-7988-9_15

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