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Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy pp 163–205Cite as

Spatially Resolved EELS: The Spectrum-Imaging Technique and Its Applications

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Abstract

In this chapter, we present the basis of spatially resolved electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS). We mainly focus on the spectrum-imaging (SPIM) technique. After summarising the information found in an EELS spectrum, the instrumentation and analysis techniques relevant to the SPIM are thoroughly discussed. Finally, applications involving a broad range of energy losses, typically 1–1000 eV, are discussed, in order to illustrate the whole field of scientific domains which is thus opened.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Although the terminology is not consistent in the literature, we will call interband transitions arising in the 13.5–100 eV range “semi-core losses”. The distinction with the core losses is blurred somewhat, but one practical difference is that the real part of ɛ is very close to unity for core losses and may depart from it significantly for semi-core losses.

  2. 2.

    When very high current is required, the first condenser can also be strongly excited, resulting in an additional contribution to the spherical aberration Cs, which has to be corrected by the Cs corrector. Note that the Cs corrector could be put after any of the lenses it has to correct, but obviously is put before the OL due to space limitations.

  3. 3.

    In some designs, such as the NION STEM (Krivanek et al. 2008), a coupling module can be added between the spectrometer and the projector system, serving various purposes: adapting the energy dispersion-dependent object point of the spectrometer, changing the camera length while keeping a constant HAADF angle (if the HAADF detector is between the projectors and the coupling module) and correcting third-order aberrations of the spectrometer.

  4. 4.

    To bin is the action of hardware summing different pixels at the time - then gaining readout speed, readout noise, but losing dynamics. In EELS, this is mostly done along the non-dispersing axis.

  5. 5.

    Although the acquisition format is of course non-negative integer, any subsequent treatment is likely to transform the data into real (possibly negative) numbers, so it is advisable to stick to a real number format.

  6. 6.

    We consider for simplicity here that all the inelastic signals are gathered in both types of experiment, which may of course not be the case in real experiments, as discussed at various places in this chapter.

  7. 7.

    It is worth noting the gain in current density available in a C 5-corrected machine, where the incident semi-angle can be as large as 50 mrd while maintaining sub nanometre spatial resolution.

  8. 8.

    With available currents in low-loss experiments increasing, CCD detectors might saturate so quickly that the limitation becomes the readout time rather than the acquisition time.

  9. 9.

    In the case of a planar system, the fact that the energy depends on the momentum is a relativistic effect. However, in other geometries (spheres (Ugarte et al. 1992) and cylinders (Kociak et al. 2000), for example), the energy is also momentum dependent in classical schemes.

  10. 10.

    In an EELS experiment, there is practically no way to distinguish between a gap and an exciton. What is experimentally measured is – at best! – the onset of a peak in the low-loss region. Whether it is a pure electronic gap or an exciton has to be determined through additional theoretical work.

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Acknowledgement

We wish to thank J. Nelayah and M. Couillard for providing us with the raw data needed for some figures.

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  1. Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, CNRS/UMR8502, Université Paris-Sud, 91405, Orsay, France

    Mathieu Kociak, Odile Stéphan, Michael G. Walls, Marcel Tencé & Christian Colliex

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  1. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 1 Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, 37831-6056, Tennessee, USA

    Stephen J. Pennycook

  2. , Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PH, United Kingdom

    Peter D. Nellist

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Kociak, M., Stéphan, O., Walls, M.G., Tencé, M., Colliex, C. (2011). Spatially Resolved EELS: The Spectrum-Imaging Technique and Its Applications. In: Pennycook, S., Nellist, P. (eds) Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-7200-2_4

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