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Perspectives of Micro and Nanofabrication of Carbon for Electrochemical and Microfluidic Applications

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Microfluidics and Microfabrication

Abstract

This chapter focuses on glass-like carbons, their method of micro and nanofabrication and their electrochemical and microfluidic applications. At first, the general properties of this material are exposed, followed by its advantages over other forms of carbon and over other materials. After an overview of the carbonization process of organic polymers we delve into the history of glass-like carbon. The bulk of the chapter deals with different fabrication tools and techniques to pattern polymers. It is shown that when it comes to carbon patterning, it is significantly easier and more convenient to shape an organic polymer and carbonize it than to machine carbon directly. Therefore the quality, dimensions and complexity of the final carbon part greatly depend on the polymer structure acting as a precursor. Current fabrication technologies allow for the patterning of polymers in a wide range of dimensions and with a great variety of tools. Even though several fabrication techniques could be employed such as casting, stamping or even Computer Numerical Controlled (CNC) machining, the focus of this chapter is on photolithography, given its precise control over the fabrication process and its reproducibility. Next Generation Lithography (NGL) tools are also covered as a viable way to achieve nanometer-sized carbon features. These tools include electron beam (e-beam), Focused-ion beam (FIB), Nano Imprint Lithography (NIL) and Step-and-Flash Imprint Lithography (SFIL). At last, the use of glass-like carbon in three applications, related to microfluidics and electrochemistry, is discussed: Dielectrophoresis, Electrochemical sensors, and Fuel Cells. It is exposed how in these applications glass-like carbon offers an advantage over other materials.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Some crystals do not usually break in any particular direction, reflecting roughly equal bond strengths throughout the crystal structure. Breakage in such materials is known as fracture. The term conchoidal is used to describe fracture with smooth, curved surfaces that resemble the interior of a seashell; it is commonly observed in quartz and glass. Conchoidal fracture. (2009). In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved April 08, 2009, from Encyclopaedia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com

  2. 2.

    Char is a solid decomposition product of a natural or synthetic organic material. If the precursor has not passed through a fluid stage, char will retain the characteristic shape of the precursor (although becoming of smaller size). For such materials the term “pseudomorphous” has been used. In contrast, coke is produced by pyrolysis of organic materials that have passed, at least in part, through a liquid or liquid-crystalline state during the carbonization process.

  3. 3.

    Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) or poly(methyl 2-methylpropenoate) is the synthetic polymer of methyl methacrylate. This thermoplastic and transparent plastic is sold by the trade names Plexiglas, Limacryl, R-Cast, Perspex, Plazcryl, Acrylex, Acrylite, Acrylplast, Altuglas, Polycast and Lucite and is commonly called acrylic glass or simply acrylic.

  4. 4.

    FDEP is given by the equation 2πɛmr3Re[fCM]grad(Erms 2) where ɛm is the permittivity of the medium, r is the particle radius, Re[fCM] denotes the real part of the Clausius-Mossotti factor and grad(Erms 2) illustrates an electric field gradient. E is given by V/d where V is the voltage applied to the electrodes and d represents the distance between them.

  5. 5.

    This difference is given by the Clausius-Mossotti factor. This factor is named after the Italian physicist Ottaviano-Fabrizio Mossotti, whose 1850 book analyzed the relationship between the dielectric constants of two different media, and the German physicist Rudolf Clausius, who gave the formula explicitly in his 1879 book in the context not of dielectric constants but of indices of refraction. The Clausius-Mossotti factor is given by (ɛp 5–ɛm 5)/(ɛp 5+2ɛm 5). ɛ5denotes complex permittivity and is given by ɛ + (σ/iω) where ɛ is the permittivity, σ is conductivity, i denotes the square root of −1 and ω is the angular frequency of the applied electric field; p and m denote particle and media respectively.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Irvine 4200 Engineering Gateway, Irvine, CA, 92697, USA

    R. Martinez-Duarte

  2. Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA

    G. Turon Teixidor & M. J. Madou

  3. Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, USA

    P. P. Mukherjee & Q. Kang

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  1. Dept. Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, 721302, India

    Suman Chakraborty

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Martinez-Duarte, R., Teixidor, G.T., Mukherjee, P.P., Kang, Q., Madou, M.J. (2010). Perspectives of Micro and Nanofabrication of Carbon for Electrochemical and Microfluidic Applications. In: Chakraborty, S. (eds) Microfluidics and Microfabrication. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1543-6_5

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