Skip to main content

Theoretical Perspectives on Cognitive Aging

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Handbook of Medical Neuropsychology

Abstract

Aging is a broad concept that includes physical changes in our bodies, psychological changes in our minds and mental capacities, social psychological changes in what we think and believe, and social changes in how we are viewed and what is expected of us. We write this chapter to examine the changes in our mental capacity, or cognitive changes, associated with aging. Cognitive psychologists, neuropsychologists, and clinical geropsychologists each bring unique perspectives to our understanding of cognitive aging. The primary function of this chapter is to examine cognitive aging through the varied perspectives offered by cognitive psychologists (i.e., the first author) and clinical geropsychologists (i.e., the second author). We (the authors) attempt to blend our unique perspectives in order to engage in a comprehensive discussion of cognitive aging.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. McNeilly S. On the true philosopher and the true philosophy – essays on Swedenborg. London: Swedenborg Society; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Simpson D. Phrenology and the neurosciences: contributions of F. J. Gall and J. G. Spurzheim ANZ. J Surg. 2005;75:475–82.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Stookey B. Jean-Baptiste BOUILLAUD and Ernest Auburtin. Early studies on cerebral localization and the speech center. JAMA. 1963;184:1024–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Finger S. “Paul Broca (1824–1880)”. J Neurol. 2004;251:769–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Schaie K. The course of adult intellectual development. Am Psychol. 1994;49:304–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Powell DH, Whitla DK. Profiles in cognitive aging. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1994. xv, 251.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Raz N, Lindenberger U, Rodrigue KM, et al. Regional brain changes in aging healthy adults: general trends, individual differences and modifiers. Cereb Cortex. 2005;15:1679–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Allen PA, Weber TA, Madden DJ. Adult age differences in attention: filtering or selection? J Gerontol. 1994;49:P213–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Hasher L, Zacks RT. Working memory, comprehension, and aging: a review and a new view. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Verhaeghen P, Salthouse TA. Meta-analyses of age-cognition relations in adulthood: estimates of linear and nonlinear age effects and structural models. Psychol Bull. 1997;122:231–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Balota DA, Dolan PO, Duchek JM. Memory changes in healthy older adults. In: The Oxford handbook of memory. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2000. pp. 395–409.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Craik FI, Byrd M, Swanson JM. Patterns of memory loss in three elderly samples. Psychol Aging. 1987;2:79–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Salthouse TA. Aging associations: influence of speed on adult age differences in associative learning. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 1994;20:1486–503.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. West RL. An application of prefrontal cortex function theory to cognitive aging. Psychol Bull. 1996;120:272–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Anderson B, Rutledge V. Age and hemisphere effects on dendritic structure. Brain J Neurol. 1996;119:1983–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Swaab D, Hofman M, Lucassen P, et al. Neuronal atrophy, not cell death, is the main hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol Aging. 1994;15:369–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Armstrong CL, Traipe E, Hunter JV, et al. Age related, regional, hemispheric, and medial-lateral differences in myelin integrity in vivo in the normal adult brain. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2004;25:977–84.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Peters A, Sethares C. Aging and myelinated nerve fibers in prefrontal cortex and corpus callosum of the monkey. J Comp Neurol. 2002;442:277–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Waldemar G. Functional brain imaging with SPECT in normal aging and dementia: methodological, pathophysiological and diagnostic aspect. Cerebrovasc Brain Metab Rev. 1995;7:89–130.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Raz N, Gunning-Dixon FM, Head D, et al. Neuroanatomical correlates of cognitive aging: evidence from structural magnetic resonance imaging. Neuropsychology. 1998;12:95–114.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Salthouse TA. The nature of the influence of speed on adult age differences in cognition. Dev Psychol. 1994;30:240–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  22. Salthouse TA. Adult age and the speed-accuracy trade-off. Ergonomics. 1979;22:811–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Salthouse TA. Anticipatory processing in transcription typing. J Appl Psychol. 1985;70:264–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Salthouse TA. Speed of behavior and its implications for cognition. In: Handbook of the psychology of aging. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co; 1985. pp. 1400–26, xvii, 1931.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Salthouse TA. Cognitive facets of aging well. Generations J Am Soc Aging. 1991;15:35–8.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Salthouse TA, Babcock RL, Shaw RJ. Effects of adult age on structural and operational capacities in working memory. Psychol Aging. 1991;6:118–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Salthouse TA, Legg S, Palmon R, Mitchell DR. Memory factors in age-related differences in simple reasoning. Psychol Aging. 1990;5:9–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Salthouse TA, Mitchell DR. Effects of age and naturally occurring experience on spatial visualization performance. Dev Psychol. 1990;26:845–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Salthouse TA. The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychol Rev. 1996;103:403–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Braver TS, Barch DM, Keys BA, et al. Context processing in older adults: evidence for a theory relating cognitive control to neurobiology in healthy aging. J Exp Psychol Gen. 2001;130:746–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Schretlen D, Pearlson GD, Anthony JC, et al. Elucidating the contributions of processing speed, executive ability, and frontal lobe volume to normal age-related differences in fluid intelligence. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2000;6:52–61.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Buchsbaum BR, Greer S, Chang W-L, Berman KF. Meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies of the Wisconsin Card-Sorting task and component processes. Hum Brain Mapp. 2005;25:35–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Konishi S, Nakajima K, Uchida I, et al. Transient activation of inferior prefrontal cortex during cognitive set shifting. Nat Neurosci. 1998;1:80–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Sumitani S, Tanaka T, Tayoshi SY, et al. Activation of the prefrontal cortex during the Wisconsin Card Sorting test as measured by multichannel near-infrared spectroscopy. Neuropsychobiology. 2006;53:70–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Volz H-P, Gaser C, Hager F, et al. Brain activation during cognitive stimulation with the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test – a functional MRI study on healthy volunteers and schizophrenics. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging. 1997;75:145–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Benton AL, Hamsher K. Multilingual aphasia examination. 2nd ed. Iowa City, IA: AJA Assoc; 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Salthouse TA. What do adult age differences in the digit symbol substitution test reflect? J Gerontol. 1992;47:P121–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Salthouse TA. Influence of processing speed on adult age differences in working memory. Acta Psychologica. 1992;79:155–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. MacDonald SW, Hultsch DF, Strauss E, Dixon RA. Age-related slowing of digit symbol substitution revisited: what do longitudinal age changes reflect? J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2003;58:P187–94.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Lezak MD, Howieson DB, Loring DW, et al. Neuropsychological assessment. 4th ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Phelps EA, Hyder F, Blamire AM, Shulman RG. FMRI of the prefrontal cortex during overt verbal fluency. Neuroreport Int J Rapid Commun Res Neurosci. 1997;8:561–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Tombaugh TN, Kozak J, Rees L. Normative data stratified by age and education for two measures of verbal fluency: FAS and animal naming. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 1999;14:167–77.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Kane MJ, Hasher L, Stoltzfus ER, et al. Inhibitory attentional mechanisms and aging. Psychol Aging. 1994;9:103–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Tipper SP. Mechanisms of visual selective attention. Can Psychol/Psychologie Canadienne. 1991;32:640–2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Hamm VP, Hasher L. Age and the availability of inferences. Psychol Aging. 1992;7:56–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Arbuckle TY, Gold DP. Aging, inhibition, and verbosity. J Gerontol. 1993;48:P225–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Dempster FN. Inhibitory processes: a neglected dimension of intelligence. Intelligence. 1991;15:157–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Dempster FN. The rise and fall of the inhibitory mechanism: toward a unified theory of cognitive development and aging. Dev Rev. 1992;12:45–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Harnishfeger KK, Bjorklund DF. A developmental perspective on individual differences in inhibition. Learn Individ Diff. 1994;6:331–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Baddeley A. Working memory. New York, NY: Clarendon Press/Oxford University Press; 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Baddeley A. Working memory. Science. 1992;255:556–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Carpenter PA, Just MA, Shell P. What one intelligence test measures: a theoretical account of the processing in the Raven Progressive Matrices Test. Psychol Rev. 1990;97:404–31.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Jonides J. Working memory and thinking. In: Thinking: an invitation to cognitive science, vol 3. 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press; 1995. pp. 215–65.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Riby LM, Perfect TJ, Stollery BT. The effects of age and task domain on dual task performance: a meta-analysis. Eur J Cogn Psychol. 2004;16:868–91.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Daneman M, Carpenter PA. Individual differences in working memory and reading. J Verb Learn Verb Behav. 1980;19:450–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Lustig C, May CP, Hasher L. Working memory span and the role of proactive interference. J Exp Psychol Gen. 2001;130:199–207.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. May CP, Hasher L, Kane MJ. The role of interference in memory span. Mem Cogn. 1999;27:759–67.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Rowe G, Hasher L, Turcotte J. Age differences in visuospatial working memory. Psychol Aging. 2008;23:79–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Lustig C, Hasher L, Zacks, R. Inhibitory deficit theory: Recent developments in a ``new view’. In: Gorfein DS, MacLeod CM, editors. Inhibition in cognition. Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association; 2007. pp. 145–62.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Bunting M. Proactive interference and item similarity in working memory. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 2006;32:183–96.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Friedman NP, Miyake A. The relations among inhibition and interference control functions: a latent-variable analysis. J Exp Psychol Gen. 2004;133:101–35.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Hedden T, Park DC. Contributions of source and inhibitory mechanisms to age-related retroactive interference in verbal working memory. J Exp Psychol Gen. 2003;132:93–112.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Wechsler D. Cognitive, conative, and non-intellective intelligence (1950). In: The evolution of psychology: fifty years of the American psychologist. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 1997. pp. 1922–32, xxv, 1783.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Alvarez JA, Emory E. Executive function and the frontal lobes: a meta-analytic review. Neuropsychol Rev. 2006;16:17–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. MacLeod CM. Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: an integrative review. Psychol Bull. 1991;109:163–203.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Posner MI, Snyder CRR. Attention and cognitive control. New York, NY: Psychology Press; 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Vendrell P, Junque C, Pujol J, et al. The role of prefrontal regions in the Stroop task. Neuropsychologia. 1995;33:341–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Stuss D, Floden D, Alexander M, et al. Stroop performance in focal lesion patients: dissociation of processes and frontal lobe lesion location. Neuropsychologia. 2001;39:771–86.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Wecker NS, Kramer JH, Wisniewski A, et al. Age effects on executive ability. Neuropsychology. 2000;14:409–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Troyer AK, Leach L, Strauss E. Aging and response inhibition: normative data for the Victoria Stroop test. Aging Neuropsychol Cogn. 2006;13:20–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Miyake A, Friedman NP, Emerson MJ, et al. The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex ``frontal lobe’ tasks: a latent variable analysis. Cogn Psychol. 2000;41:49–100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Ronnlund M, Nyberg L, Backman L, Nilsson L-G. Stability, growth, and decline in adult life span development of declarative memory: cross-sectional and longitudinal data from a Population-Based Study. Psychol Aging. 2005;20:3–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Salthouse TA. Relations between cognitive abilities and measures of executive functioning. Neuropsychology. 2005;19:532–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Craik FIM, Byrd M. Aging and cognitive deficits: the role of attentional resources. In: Craik FIM, Trehub SE, editors. Aging and cognitive processes. New York, NY: Plenum; 1982. 191–211.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  75. Hasher L, Zacks RT. Automatic and effortful processes in memory. J Exp Psychol Gen. 1979;108:356–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  76. Alba JW, Chromiak W, Hasher L, Attig MS. Automatic encoding of category size information. J Exp Psychol Hum Learn Mem. 1980;6:370–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  77. Thomas AK, Bulevich JB. Effective cue utilization reduces memory errors in older adults. Psychol Aging. 2006;21:379–89.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Zacks RT. Encoding strategies used by young and elderly adults in a keeping track task. J Gerontol. 1982;37:203–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Craik FIM. On the transfer of information from temporary to permanent memory. Philos Transac R Soc B. 1983;302:341–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Light LL, Singh A. Implicit and explicit memory in young and older adults. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 1987;13:531–41.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Koutstaal W, Schacter DL, Galluccio L, Stofer KA. Reducing gist-based false recognition in older adults: encoding and retrieval manipulations. Psychol Aging. 1999;14:220–37.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Dodson CS, Johnson MK. Rate of false source attributions depends on how questions are asked. Am J Psychol. 1993;106:541–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Johnson MK, Hashtroudi S, Lindsay D. Source monitoring. Psychol Bull. 1993;114:3–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Norman KA, Schacter DL. False recognition in younger and older adults: exploring the characteristics of illusory memories. Mem Cogn. 1997;25:838–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Schacter DL, Norman KA, Koutstaal W. The cognitive neuroscience of constructive memory. Ann Rev Psychol. 1998;49:289–318.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. de Haan M, Mishkin M, Baldeweg T, Vargha-Khadem F. Human memory development and its dysfunction after early hippocampal injury. Trends Neurosci. 2006;29:374–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Kramer JH, Rosen HJ, Du A-T, et al. Dissociations in hippocampal and frontal contributions to episodic memory performance. Neuropsychology. 2005;19:799–805.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Lancelot C, Ahad P, Noulhiane M, et al. Loss of memory for auditory-spatial associations following unilateral medial temporal-lobe damage. Neuropsychologia. 2005;43:1975–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Daselaar S, Veltman D, Rombouts S, et al. Neuroanatomical correlates of episodic encoding and retrieval in young and elderly subjects. Brain J Neurol. 2003;126:43–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  90. Alvarez P, Zola-Morgan S, Squire LR. Damage limited to the hippocampal region produces long-lasting memory impairment in monkeys. J Neurosci. 1995;15: 3796–807.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Eichenbaum H. Learning from LTP: a comment on recent attempts to identify cellular & molecular mechanisms of memory. Learn Mem. 1996;3:61–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Delis DC, Kramer JH, Kaplan E, Ober BA. The California verbal learning test-second edition: adult version manual. San Anotonio, TX: Psychological Corporation; 2000.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Delis DC, Kramer JH, Kaplan E, et al. The California verbal learning test: research edition. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation; 1987.

    Google Scholar 

  94. Botwinick J, Thompson LW. Age difference in reaction: an artifact? The Gerontologist. 1968;8:25–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Morse CK. Does variability increase with age? An archival study of cognitive measures. Psychol Aging. 1993;8:156–64.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Cowell PE, Turetsky BI, Gur RC, et al. Sex differences in aging of the human frontal and temporal lobes. J Neurosci. 1994;14:4748–55.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Kampen DL, Sherwin BB. Estradiol is related to visual memory in healthy young men. Behav Neurosci. 1996;110:613–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Maki PM, Zonderman AB, Resnick SM. Enhanced verbal memory in nondemented elderly women receiving hormone-replacement therapy. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158:227–33.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Phillips SM, Sherwin BB. Effects of estrogen on memory function in surgically menopausal women. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 1992;17:485–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Robinson D, Friedman L, Marcus R, et al. Estrogen replacement therapy and memory in older women. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1994;42:919–22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Sherwin BB. Estrogen and/or androgen replacement therapy and cognitive functioning in surgically menopausal women. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 1988;13: 345–57.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Keenan P, Ezzat W, Ginsburg K, Moore G. Prefrontal cortex as the site of estrogen’s effect on cognition. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2001;26:577–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Rubinow DR, Schmidt PJ. Androgens, brain, and behavior. Am J Psychiatry. 1996;153:974–84.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Meinz EJ, Salthouse TA. Is age kinder to females than to males? Psychon Bull Rev. 1998;5:56–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  105. Barrett-Connor E, Kritz-Silverstein D. Gender differences in cognitive function with age: the Rancho Bernardo Study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1999;47:159–64.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Larrabee GJ, Crook TH. Do men show more rapid age-associated decline in simulated everyday verbal memory than do women? Psychol Aging. 1993;8:68–71.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Wiederholt W, Cahn D, Butters NM, et al. Effects of age, gender and education on selected neuropsychological tests in an elderly community cohort. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1993;41:639–47.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Zelinski EM, Stewart ST. Individual differences in 16-year memory changes. Psychol Aging. 1998;13:622–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Lacreuse A, Kim CB, Rosene DL, et al. Sex, age, and training modulate spatial memory in the Rhesus Monkey (Macaca mulatta). Behav Neurosci. 2005;119:118–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Glisky EL, Polster MR, Routhieaux BC. Double dissociation between item and source memory. Neuropsychology. 1995;9:229–35.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  111. Hart RP, Kwentus JA, Wade JB, Taylor JR. Modified Wisconsin Sorting Test in elderly normal, depressed and demented patients. Clin Neuropsychol. 1988;2:49–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  112. Benton A, Spreen O, Fangman M. Visual retention test, Administration C: norms for children. J Spec Educ. 1967;1:151–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  113. Wechsler D. The psychometric tradition: developing the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. Contemp Educ Psychol. 1981;6:82–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  114. Glisky EL, Rubin SR, Davidson PS. Source memory in older adults: an encoding or retrieval problem? J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 2001;27:1131–46.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. McDaniel MA, Glisky EL, Guynn MJ, Routhieaux BC. Prospective memory: a neuropsychological study. Neuropsychology. 1999;13:103–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Thomas AK, Sommers MS. Attention to item-specific processing eliminates age effects in false memories. J Mem Lang. 2005;52:71–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  117. Smith RE, Lozito JP, Bayen UJ. Adult age differences in distinctive processing: the modality effect on false recall. Psychol Aging. 2005;20:486–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Park DC, Puglisi J, Sovacool M. Memory for pictures, words, and spatial location in older adults: evidence for pictorial superiority. J Gerontol. 1983;38:582–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Trahan DE, Larrabee GJ, Levin HS. Age-related differences in recognition memory for pictures. Exp Aging Res. 1986;12:147–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Koutstaal W. Older adults encode – but do not always use – perceptual details: intentional versus unintentional effects of detail on memory judgments. Psychol Sci. 2003;14:189–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. Rabinowitz JC, Craik FI, Ackerman BP. A processing resource account of age differences in recall. Can J Psychol/Revue Canadienne de Psychologie. 1982;36:325–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  122. Spencer WD, Raz N. Differential effects of aging on memory for content and context: a meta-analysis. Psychol Aging. 1995;10:527–39.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Li S-C, Naveh-Benjamin M, Lindenberger U. Aging neuromodulation impairs associative binding: a neurocomputational account. Psychol Sci. 2005;16:445–50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. Morris JC, McKeel D, Storandt M, et al. Very mild Alzheimer’s disease: informant-based clinical, psychometric, and pathologic distinction from normal aging. Neurology. 1991;41:469–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Grundman M, Petersen RC, Ferris SH, et al. Mild cognitive impairment can be distinguished from Alzheimer disease and normal aging for clinical trials. Arch Neurol. 2004;61:59–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Petersen RC, Smith GE, Waring SC, et al. Mild cognitive impairment: clinical characterization and outcome. Arch Neurol. 1999;56:303–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Knight BG, Poon CYM, editors. The socio-cultural context in understanding older adults: contextual adult lifespan theory for adapting psychotherapy. New York, NY: Wiley; 2008.

    Google Scholar 

  128. Alexopoulos GS. Depression in the elderly. Lancet. 2005;365:1961–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Butters MA, Becker JT, Nebes RD, et al. Changes in cognitive functioning following treatment of late-life depression. Am J Psychiatry. 2000;157:1949–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. Nebes RD, Pollock BG, Houck PR, et al. Persistence of cognitive impairment in geriatric patients following antidepressant treatment: a randomized double-blind clinical trial with nortriptyline and paroxetine. J Psychiatr Res. 2003;37:99–108.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Alexopoulos GS. The vascular depression hypothesis: 10 years later. Biol Psychiatry. 2006;60:1304–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Krishnan KRR, Taylor WD, McQuaid DRE, et al. Clinical characteristics of magnetic resonance imaging–defined subcortical ischemic depression. Biol Psychiatry. 2004;55:390–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. Butters MA, Whyte E, Nebes RD, et al. The nature and determinants of neuropsychological functioning in late-life depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2004;61:587–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Lesser IM, Boone KB, Mehringer CM, et al. Cognition and white matter hyperintensities in older depressed patients. Am J Psychiatry. 1996;153:1280–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Blazer DG, Burchett B, Service C, George LK. The association of age and depression among the elderly: an epidemiologic exploration. J Gerontol. 1991;46:M210–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. Newmann JP, Engel RJ, Jensen JE. Changes in depressive-symptom experiences among older women. Psychol Aging. 1991;6:212–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Salthouse TA. Theoretical perspectives on cognitive aging. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  138. Hultsch DF, Hertzog C, Small BJ, Dixon RA. Use it or lose it: engaged lifestyle as a buffer of cognitive decline in aging? Psychol Aging. 1999;14:245–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  139. Hultsch DF, Hammer M, Small B. Age differences in cognitive performance in later life: relationships to self-reported health and activity life style. J Gerontol Psychol Sci. 1993;43:1–11.

    Google Scholar 

  140. Luszcz MA, Bryan J, Kent P. Predicting episodic memory performance of very old men and women: contributions from age, depression, activity, cognitive ability, and speed. Psychol Aging. 1997;12:340–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  141. Crowe M, Andel R, Pedersen NL, Johansson B, Gatz M. Does participation in leisure activities lead to reduced risk of Alzheimer’s disease? A prospective study of Swedish twins. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci. 2003;58:249–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  142. Verghese J, Lipton RB, Katz MJ, Hall CB, Derby CA, Kuslansky G, Ambrose AF, Sliwinski M, Buschke H. Leisure activities and the risk of dementia in the elderly. N Eng J Med. 2003;348:2508–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  143. Karp A, Paillard-Borg S, Wang HX, Silverstein M, Winblad B, Fratiglioni L. Mental, physical and social components in leisure activities equally contribute to decrease dementia risk. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2003;21:65–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  144. Wilson R, Scherr PA, Schneider JA, Tang Y, Bennett DA. Relation of cognitive activity to risk of developing Alzheimer disease. Neurology. 2007;69:1911–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  145. Willis SL, Tennstedt SL, Marsiske M, Ball K, Elias J, Koepke KM, Morris JN, Rebok GW, Unverzagt FW, Stoddard AM, Wright E. Long-term effects of cognitive training on everyday functional outcomes in older adults. JAMA. 2006;296:2805–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  146. Ball KBD, Helmers KF, Jobe JB, Leveck MD, Marsiske M, Morris JN, Rebok GW, Smith DM, Tennstedt SL, Unverzagt FW, Willis SL. Advanced cognitive training for independent and vital elderly study group. JAMA. 2002;288:2271–81.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  147. Smith GE, Housen P, Yaffe K, Ruff R, Kennison RF, Mahncke HW, Zelinski EM. A cognitive training program based on principles of brain plasticity: results from the Improvement in Memory with Plasticity-based Adaptive Cognitive Training (IMPACT) study. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2009;57:594–603.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  148. Buschkuehl M, Jaeggi S, Hutchison S, Perrig-Chiello P, Däpp C, Müller M, Breil F, Hoppeler H, Perrig WJ. Impact of working memory training on memory performance in old-old adults. Psychol Aging. 2008;23:743–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. Small GW, Silverman DH, Siddarth P, Ercoli LM, Miller KJ, Lavretsky H, Wright BC, Bookheimer SY, Barrio JR, Phelps ME. Effects of a 14-day healthy longevity lifestyle program on cognition and brain function. Am J Psychiatry. 2006;14:538–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  150. Masley S, Roetzheim R, Gualtieri T. J Aerobic exercise enhances cognitive flexibility. Clin Psychol Med Settings. 2009;16:186–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  151. Andel R, Crowe M, Pedersen NL, Fratiglioni L, Johansson B, Gatz M. Physical exercise at midlife and risk of dementia three decades later: a population-based study of Swedish twins. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2008;63:62–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. Small G. The memory bible: an innovative strategy for keeping your brain young. New York, NY: Hyperion; 2003.

    Google Scholar 

  153. Fogler J, Stern L. Improving your memory: how to remember what you’re starting to forget. 3rd ed. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  154. West R, Baylis GC. Effects of increased response dominance and contextual disintegration on the Stroop interference effect in older adults. Psychol Aging. 1998;13:206–17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. Kieley JM, Hartley AA. Age-related equivalence of identity suppression in the Stroop color-word task. Psychol Aging. 1997;12:22–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. Sullivan MP, Faust ME. Evidence for identity inhibition during selective attention in old adults. Psychol Aging. 1993;8:589–98.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ayanna K. Thomas .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Thomas, A.K., Dave, J.B., Bonura, B.M. (2010). Theoretical Perspectives on Cognitive Aging. In: Armstrong, C., Morrow, L. (eds) Handbook of Medical Neuropsychology. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1364-7_16

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics