Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

The Neurochemical Basis of Autism pp 129–161Cite as

Cholinergic Component of Autism Spectrum Disorder

  • Chapter

Abstract

Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by impaired social skills, communication deficits and repetitive behaviours. Alterations in a variety of transmitter signaling systems including serotonin, oxytocin, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate, and acetylcholine have been reported in autistic individuals. These are potentially relevant to psychoneuropharmacological therapeutic strategies.

An interesting hypothesis regarding transmitter signaling in autism implicates an imbalance in the major executive excitatory and inhibitory impulses in the premature autistic brain, combined with defects in secondary neurotransmitter systems, to cause autistic traits. In this chapter we concentrate on the cholinergic changes investigated in autism based on brain bank tissue. There is significant reduction in muscarinic and nicotinic receptors in various neocortical areas, including frontal and parietal neocortex, thalamus, as well as cerebellum in autistic subjects. In contrast, the level of choline acetyltransferase is not altered, suggesting that the presynaptic cholinergic projections are spared. The cholinergic receptor changes could be caused by abnormal cortical neuronal morphology (including synaptic and dendritic abnormalities, as well as neuronal migrational arrest).

Although a wide range of drugs are used to ameliorate symptoms of autistic behaviour, currently there is no effective treatment. We discuss novel treatments such as use of cholinesterase inhibitors and nicotinic receptor antagonists as intervention therapies for treatment of the cognitive and non-cognitive changes in the autistic spectrum disorders.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Acevido NL, Muralidharan B, Paadala N, To J, Jonakait GM (2007) Toll-like receptor ligands and CD154 stimulate microglia to produce a factor(s) that promote excess cholinergic differentiation in the developing rat basal forebrain: implications for neurodevelopmental disorders. Pediatr Res 61:15–20.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Amenta F, Tayebati SK (2008) Pathways of acetylcholine synthesis, transport and release as targets for treatment of adult-onset cognitive dysfunction. Curr Med Chem 15:488–498.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson R, Higgins GA (1997) Absence of central cholinergic deficits in ApoE knockout mice. Psychopharmacol 132:135–144.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Araghi-Niknam M, Fatemi SH (2003) Levels of Bcl-2 and P53 are altered in superior frontal and cerebellar cortices of autistic subjects. Cell Mol Neurobiol 23:945–952.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bailey AJ, Luthert P, Dean A, Harding B, Janota I, Montgomery M, Rutter M, Lantos P (1998) A clinicopathological study of autism. Brain 121:889–905.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes CA, Meltzer J, Houston F, Orr G, McGann K, Wenk GL (2000) Chronic treatment of old rats with donepezil or galantamine: effects on memory, hippocampal plasticity and nicotinic receptors. Neuroscience 99:17–23.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baulac S, Huberfeld G, Gourfinkel-An I, Mitropoulou G, Beranger A, Prud’homme JF, Baulac M, Brice A, Bruzzone R, LeGuerm E (2001) First genetic evidence of GABA9A receptor dysfunction in epilepsy: A mutation in the gamma-2-subunit gene. Nat Genet 28:46–48.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bauman ML, Kemper TL (1994) Neuroanatomic observations of the brain in autism. In: The Neurobiology of Autism (Bauman ML, and Kemper TL, eds.) pp. 119–145, John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore

    Google Scholar 

  • Bejar C, Wang RH, Weinstock M (1999) Effect of rivastigmine on scopolamine induced memory impairments in rats. Europ J Pharmacol 383:231–240.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Belmonte MK, Cook EH Jr, Anderson GM, Rubenstein JL, Greenough WT, Beckel-Mitchener A, Courchesne E, Boulanger LM, Powell SB, Levitt PR, Perry EK, Jiang YH, DeLorey TM, Tierney E (2004) Autism as a disorder of neural information processing: Directions for research and targets for therapy. Mol Psychiatry 9:646–663.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bergman J, Dwolatzky T, Brettholz I, Lerner V (2005) Beneficial effect of donepezil in the treatment of elderly patients with tardive movement disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 66:107–110.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blatt GJ, Fitzgerald CM, Guptill JT, Booker AB, Kemper TL, Bauman ML (2001) Density and distribution of hippocampal neurotransmitter receptors in autism: an autoradiographic study. J Autism Develop Dis 31:537–543.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brooksbank BW, Atkinson DJ, Balazs R (1981) Biochemical development of the human brain. II. Some parameters of the GABAergic system. Dev Neurosci 4:188–200

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buchanan RW, Conley RR, Dickinson D, Ball MP, Feldman S, Gold JM, Mcmahon RP (2008) Galantamine for the treatment of cognitive impairments in people with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 165: 82–89.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buxhoeveden DP, Semendeferi K, Buckwalter J, Schenker N, Switzer R, Courchesne,E (2006) Reduced minicolumns in the frontal cortex of patients with autism. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 32:483–491.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Casanova MF, Buxhoeveden DP, Switala AE, Roy E (2002) Minicolumnar pathology in autism. Neurology 58:428–432.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP) (2007) Autism - Who is affected? (ADDM) Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/overview.htm

  • Chen Y, Shoshami E, Constantini S, Weinstock M (1998) Rivastigmine, a brain selective acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, ameliorates cognitive and motor deficits induced by closed-head injury in the mouse. J Neurotrauma 15:231–237.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chez MG, Aimonovitch M, Buchanan T, Meazek S, Tremb RJ (2004) Treating autistic spectrum disorders in children: utility of the cholinesterase inhibitor rivastigmine tartrate. J Child Neurol 19:165–169.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chez MG, Buchanan TM, Becker M, Kessler J, Aimonovitch MC, Mrazek SR (2003) Donepezil hydrochloride: a double-blind study in autistic children. J Pediatric Neurol 1:83–88.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chouiinard S, Stip E, Poulin J, Melun JP, Godbout R, Guillem F, Cohen H (2007) Rivastigmine treatment as an add-on to antipsychotics in patients with schizophrenia and cognitive deficits. Curr Red Res Opin 23:575–583.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly AM, Chez M, Streif EM, Keeling RM, Golumbek PT, Kwon JM, Riviello JJ, Robinson RG, Neuman RJ, Deuel RMK (2006) Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and autoantibodies to neural antigens in sera of children with autistic spectrum disorders, Landau-Kleffner syndrome, and epilepsy. Biol Psychiatry 59:354–363.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Courchesne E, Karus CM, Davis HR, Ziccardi R, Carper RA, Tigue ZD, Chisum HJ, Moses P, Pirce K, Lord C, Lincoln AJ, Pizzo S, Schreibman L, Haas RH, Akshoomoff NA, Courchesne RY (2001) Unusual brain growth patterns in early life in patients with autistic disorder: An MRI study. Neurology 57:245–253.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Courchesne E, Pierce K, Schumann CM, Redcay E, Buckwalter J, Kennedy DP, Morgan J (2007) Mapping early brain development in autism. Neuron 56:399–413.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Courchesne E, Yeung-Courchesne R, Press GA, Hesselink JR, Jernigan TL (1988) Hypoplasia of cerebellar vermal lobules VI and VII in autism. New Engl J Med 318:1349–1354.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Csernansky JG, Martin M, Shah R, Bertchume A, Colvin J, Dong H (2005) Cholinesterase inhibitors ameliorate behavioral deficits induced by MK-801 in mice. Neuropsychopharmacology 30:2135–2143.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson G, Meltzoff AN, Osterling J, Rinaldi J (1998) Neuropsychological correlates of early symptoms in autism. Child Dev 69:1276–1285.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Bruin N, Pouzet B (2006) Beneficial effects of galantamine on performance in the object recognition task in swiss mice: deficits induced by scopolamine and by prolonging the retention interval. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 85:253–260.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deng C, Huang XF (2005) Decreased density of muscarinic receptors in the superior temporal gyrus in schizophrenia. J Neurosci Res 81:883–890.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • deVitto TJ, Drost DJ, Neufeld RWJ, Rajakumar N, Pavlosky W, Williamson P, Nicolson R (2007) Evidence for cortical dysfunction in autism: a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging study. Biol Psychiatry 61:465–473.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dhossche D, Applegate H, Abraham A, Maertens P, Bland L, Bencsath A, Martinez J (2002) Elevated plasma GABA levels in autistic youngsters: stimulus for a GABA hypothesis in autism. Med Sci Monitor 8:PR1–PR6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dimitrova DS, Getova-Spassova DP (2006) Effects of galantamine and donepezil on active and passive avoidance tests in rats induced with hypoxia. J Pharmacol Sci 101:199–204.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dong H, Csernansky CA, Martin MV, Bertchume A, Vallera D, Csernansky JG (2005) Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors ameliorate behavioural deficits in the Tg2576 mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 181:145–152.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dwyer JB, Broide RS, Leslie FM (2008) Nicotine and brain development. Brain Defects Res (PC) 84:30–44.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dyer MA, Freudenreich O, Culhane MA, Pachas GN, Deckersbach T, Murphy G, Goff DC, Evins AE (2008) High-dose galantamine augmentation inferior to placebo on attention, inhibitory control and working memory performance in nonsmokers with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 102:88–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Endo T, Shioiri T, Kitamura H, Kimura T, Endo S, Masuzawa N, Someya T (2007) Altered chemical metabolites in the amygdala-hippocampus region contribute to autistic symptoms of autism spectrum disorders. Biol Psychiatry 62:1030–1037.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Erickson SK, Schwarzkopf SB, Palumbo D, Badgley-Fleeman J, Smirnow AM, Light GA (2005) Efficacy and tolerability of low-dose donepezil in schizophrenia. Clin Neuropharmacol 28: 179–184.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farlow M, Miller ML, Pejovic V (2008) Treatment options in Alzheimer’s disease: Maximizing benefit, managing expectations. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 25:408–422.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fatemi SH (2008) The hyperglutamatergic hypothesis of autism. Prog Neuro Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 32:912–913.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fatemi SH, Halt AR (2001) Altered levels of Bcl2 and p53 proteins in parietal cortex reflect deranged apoptopic regulation in autism. Synapse 42:281–284.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fatemi SH, Halt AR, Realmuto GR, Earle J, Kist DA, Thuras P, Mer A (2002a) Purkinje cell size is reduced in cerebellum of patients with autism. Cell Mol Neurobiol 22:171–175.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fatemi SH, Halt AR, Stary JM, Kanodia R, Schultz SC, Realmuto GR (2002b) Glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 and 67 kDa proteins are reduced in autistic parietal and cerebellar cortices. Biol Psychiatry 52:805–810.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fatemi SH, Kroll JL, Stary JM (2001) Altered levels of Reelin and its isoforms in schizophrenia and mood disorders. Neuroreport 12:3209–3215.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernandes CC, Pinto-Duartes A, Ribiero JA, Sebastião AM (2008) Postsynaptic action of brain-derived neurotrophic factor attenuates alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor-mediated responses in hippocampal interneurons. J Neurosci 21:5611–5618.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer LJ, Seegal RF, Ganey PE, Pessah IN, Kodavanti PR (1998) Symposium overview: toxicity of non-coplanar PCBs. Toxicol Sci 41:49–61.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freudenreich O, Herz L, Deckersbach T, Evins AE, Henderson DC, Cather C, Goff DC (2005) Added donepezil for stable schizophrenia: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 181:358–363.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gabis L, Huang W, Azizian A, DeVincent C, Tudorica A, Kesner-Baruch Y, Roche P, Pomeroy J (2008). 1H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy markers of cognitive and language ability in clinical subtypes of autism spectrum disorders. J Child Neurol 23:766–774.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gaynor CM, Handley SL (2001) Effects of nicotine on head-shakes and tryptophan metabolites. Psychopharmacol 153:327–333.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gillberg C, Billstedt E (2000) Autism and Asperger syndrome: coexistence with other clinical disorders. Acta Psychiat Scand 102:321–330.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gotti C, Zoli M, Clementi F (2006) Brain nicotinic acetylcholine receptors: native subtypes and their relevance. Trends Pharmacol Sci 27:482–491.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Granon S, Faure P, Changeux JP (2003) Executive and social behaviors under nicotinic receptor regulation. Proc Natl Acad Sci (USA) 100: 9596–9691.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hadjikhani N, Joseph RM, Snyder J, Tager-Flusberg H (2006) Anatomical differences in the mirror neuron system and social cognition network in autism. Cereb Cortex (New York) 16:1276–1282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hardan AY, Handen BL (2002) A retrospective open trial of adjunctive donepezil in children and adolescents with autistic disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 12:237–241.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hardan AY, Jou RJ, Keshavan MS, Varma R, Minsher NJ (2004) Increased frontal cortical folding in autism: a preliminary MRI study. Psychiatry Res 131:263–268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardan AY, Minshew NJ, Melhem NM, Srihari S, Jo B, Bansal R, Leshavan MS, Stanley JA (2008) An MRI and proton spectroscopy study of the thalamus in children with autism. Psychiatry Res 163:97–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hashimoto K, Iwata Y, Nakamura K, Tsujii M, Tsuchiya K, Sekine Y, Suzuki K, Minabe Y, Takei N, Iyo M, Mori N (2006) Reduced serum levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in adult male patients with autism. Prog Neuropsychophramacol Biol Psychiatry 30:1529–1531.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hashimoto T, Sasaki M, Sugai K, Hanaoka S, Fukumizu M, Kato T (2001) Paroxysmal discharges on EEG in young autistic patients are frequent in frontal regions. J Med Invest 48:175–180.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haysett RL, Tizabi Y (2005) Effects of donepezil, nicotine and haloperidol on the central serotonergic system in mice: implications for Tourette’s syndrome. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 81:879–886.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hazlett HC, Poe M, Gerig G, Smith RG, Provenzale J, Ross A, Gilmore J, Piven J (2005) Magnetic resonance imaging and head circumference study of brain size in autism: birth through age 2 years. Arch Gen Psychiatry 62:1366–1376.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heller JH, Spiridigliozzi GA, Crissman BG, Sullivan JA, Eelis RL, Li JS, Doraiswamy PM, Krishnan KR, Kishnani PS (2006) Safety and efficacy of rivastigmine in adolescents with Down syndrome: A preliminary 20-week, open-label study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 16:755–765.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heller JH, Spiridigliozzi GA, Dorraiswamy PM, Sullivan JA, Crissman BG, Kishnani PS (2004) Donepezil effects on language in children with Down syndrome: results of the first 22-week pilot clinical trial. Am J Med Genet 130A: 325–326.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herbert MR, Ziegler DA, Makris N, Filipek PA, Kemper TL, Normandin JJ, sanders HA, KennedyDN, Caviness VJr (2004) Localization of white matter volume increase in autism and developmental language disorder. Ann Neurol 55:530–540.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hernandez CM, Gearhart DA, Parikh V, Hohnadel EJ, Davis LW, Middlemore ML, Warsi SP, Waller JL, Terry AVJ (2006) Comparison of galantamine and donepezil for effects on nerve growth factor, cholinergic markers and memory performance in aged rats. J Pharmacol Exp Therapeutics 316:679–694.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hertzman M (2003) Galantamine in the treatment of adult autism: a report of three clinical cases. Int J Psychiatry Medicine 33:395–398.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hohmann CF, Berger-Sweeney J (1998) Cholinergic regulation of cortical development and plasticity: new twists to an old story. Perspect Dev Neurobiol 5:401–425.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hohnadel E, Bouchard K, Terry AV Jr (2007) Galantamine and donepezil attenuate pharmacologically induced deficits in prepulse inhibition in rats. Neuropharmacology 52:542–551.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Houghton PJ, Ren Y, Howes MJ (2006) Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors from plants and fungi. Nat Prod Rep 23:181–199.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howson AL, Batth S, Ilivitsky V, Boisjoli A, Jaworski M, Mahoney C, Knott VJ (2004) Clinical and attentional effects of acute nicotine treatment in Tourette’s syndrome. Eur Psychiatry 19:102–112.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huh CYL, Danik M, Manseau F, Trudeau L-E, Williams S (2008) Chronic exposure to nerve growth factor increases acetylcholine and glutamate release from cholinergic neurons of the rat medial septum and diagonal band of Broca via Mechanisms mediated by p75NTR. J Neurosci 28: 1404–1409.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jamain S, Betancur C, Quach H, Philippe A, Fellous M, Giros B, Gillberg C, Leboyer M, Bourgeron T, Study. P. A. R. I. S. P. (2002) Linkage and association of the glutamate receptor 6 gene with autism. Mol Psychiatry 7:302–310.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson N, Fahey C, Chicoine B, Chong G, Gutelman D (2003) Effects of donepezil on cognitive functioning in Down syndrome. Am J Ment Retard 108:367–372.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Karege F, Schwald M, Cisse M (2002) Potsnatal developmental profile of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in rat brain and platelets. Neurosci Lett 328:261–264.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Katoh-Semba R, Wakako R, Komori T, Shigemi H, Miyazaki N, Ito H, Kumagai T, Tsuzuki M, Shigemi K, Yoshida F, Nakayama A (2007) Age-related changes in BDNF protein levels in human serum: differences between autism cases and normal controls. Int J Dev Neurosci 25:367–372.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaufmann WE, Cooper KL, Mostofsky SH, Capone GT, Kates WR, Newschaffer CJ, Bukelis I, Stump MH, Jann AE, Lanham DC (2003) Specificity of cerebellar vermian abnormalities in autism: a quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study. J Child Neurol 18:463–470

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keefe RS, Malhotra AK, Meltzer HY, Kane JM, Buchanan RW, Murthy A, Sovel M, Li C, Goldman R (2008) Efficacy and safety of donepezil in patients with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder: significant placebo/practice effects in a 12 week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Neuropsychopharmacology 33:1217–1228.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kemper TL, Bauman M (1998) Neuropathology of infantile autism. J Neuropathol Exp Neurology 57: 645–652.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy DO, Wake G, Savelev S, Tildesley NT, Perry EK, Wesnes KA, Scholey AB (2003) Modulation of mood and cognitive performance following acute administration of single doses of Melissa officinalis (Lemon balm) with human CNS nicotinic and muscarinic receptor-binding properties. Neuropsychopharmacology 28:1871–1881.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kennedy DP, Semendeferi K, Courchesne E (2007) No reduction of spindle neuron number in frontoinsular cortex in autism. Brain Cogn 64:124–129.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kohler CG, Martin EA, Kujawski E, Bilker W, Gur RE, Gur RC (2007) No effect of donepezil on neurocognition and social cognition in young persons with stable schizophrenia. Cognit Neuropsychiatry 12:412–421.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kondoh T, Amamoto N, Doi T, Hamada H, Ogawa Y, Nakashima M, Sasaki H, Aikawa K, Tanaka T, Aoki M, Harada J, Moriuchi H (2005) Dramatic improvement in Down syndrome-associated cognitive impairment with donepezil. Ann Pharmacother 39:563–566.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kornhuber J, Mack-Burkhardt F, Konradi C, Fritze J, Riederer P (1989) Effect of antemortem and postmortem factors on [3H]MK-801 binding in the human brain: transient elevation during early childhood. Life Sci 45:745–749.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krasnoperova MG, Simashkova NV, Bashina VM (2004) Use of cholinomimetics in the treatment of endogeneous autism in children. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova 104:35–39.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kurup RK, Kurup RA (2003) A hypothalamic digoxin-mediated model for autism. Int J Neurosci 113:1537–1559.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lamb JA, Moore JH, Bailey AJ, Monaco AP (2000) Autism: recent molecular genetic advances. Hum Mol Genet 4:861–865.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lambe EK, Picciotto MR, Aghajanian GK (2003) Nicotine induces glutamate release from thalamocortical terminals in prefrontal cortex. Neuropscyhoparmacology 28:216–225.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lauder JM, Schambra UB (1999) Morphogenetic roles of acetylcholine. Environ Health Perspect 107 (suppl1): 65–69.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lavine N, Reuben M, Clarke PB (1997) A population of nicotinic receptors is associated with thalamocortical afferents in the adult rat: laminal and areal analysis. J Comp Neurol 380: 175–190.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee M, Martin-Ruiz CM, Graham AJ, Court JA, Jaros E, Perry RH, Iverson P, Bauman ML, Perry EK (2002) Nicotinic receptor abnormalities in the cerebellar cortex in autism. Brain 125: 1483–1495.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lenzi A, Maltinti E, Poggi E, Fabrizio L, Coli E (2003) Effects of rivastigmine on cognitive function and quality of life in patients with schizophrenia. Clin Neuropharmacol 26:317–321.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levin ED, Caldwell DP (2006) Low-dose mecamylamine improves learning of rats in the radial-arm maze repeated acquisition procedure. Neurobiol Learn Mem 86:117–122.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Levy RB, Reyes AD, Aoki C (2008) Chollinergic modulation of local pyramid-interneuron synapses exhibiting divergent short-term dynamics in rat sensory cortex. Brain Res 1215:97–104.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lippiello PM (2005) Nicotinic cholinergic antagonists: A novel approach for the treatment of autism. Med Hypotheses 66:985–990.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luine VN, Mohan G, Tu Z, Efange SM (2002) Chromaproline and chromaperidine, nicotinic agonists, and donepezil, cholinesterase inhibitor, enhance performance of memory tasks in ovariectomized rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 74:213–220.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luna B, Minshew NJ, Garver KE, Lazar NA, Thulborn KR, Eddy WF, Sweeney JA (2002) Neocortical system abnormalities in autism: an fMRI study of spatial working memory. Neurology 59:834–840.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mariani J (1982) Extent of multiple innervations of Purkinje cells by climbing fibers in the olivocerebellar system of weaver, reeler and staggerer mutant mice. J Neurobiol 13:119–126.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin-Ruiz CM, Lee M, Perry RH, Bauman ML, Court JA, Perry EK (2004) Molecular analysis of nicotinic receptor expression in autism. Brain Research. Brain Mol Res 123:81–90.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mazeh D, Zemishiani H, Barak Y, Muirecki I, Paleacu D (2006) Donepezil for negative signs in elderly patients with schizophrenia: an add-on, double-blind, crossover, placebo-controlled study. Int Psychogeriatr 18:429–436.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mendelsohn E, Rosenthal M, Bohiri Y, Werber E, Kotler M, Strous RD (2004) Rivastigmine augmentation in the management of chronic schizophrenia with comorbid dementia: an open-label study investigating effects on cognition, behaviour and activities of daily living. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 19:319–324.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mills JL, Hediger ML, Molloy CA, Chrousos GP, Manning-Courtney P, Yu KF, Brasington M, England LJ (2007) Elevated levels of growth-related hormones in autism and autism spectrum disorder. Clin Endocrinol 67:230–237.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mills Schumann C, Hamstra J, Goodlin-Jones BL, Lotspeich LJ, Kwon H, Buonocore MH, Lammers CR, Reiss AL, Amaral DG (2004) The amygdala is enlarged in children but not adolescents with autism; the hippocampus is enlarged at all ages. J Neurosci 24:6392–6401.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Minshew NJ, Sweeney JA, Bauman M (1997) Neurological Aspects of Autism. In Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders (Cohen D and Volkmar F eds) pp. 344–369, John Wiley & Sons New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miyazaki K, Narita N, Sakuta R, Miyahara T, Naruse H, Okado N, Narita M (2004) Serum neurotrophin concentration in autism and mental retardation: a pilot study. Brain Dev 26:292–295.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Möller JC, Eggert KM, Unger M, Odin P, Chaudhuri KR, Oertel WH (2008) Clinical risk-benefit assessment of dopamine agonists. Eur J Neurol 15[S2]:15–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mowla A, Mosavinasab M, Haghshenas H, Borhani Haghighi A (2007) Does serotonin augmentation have any effect on cognition and activities of daily living in Alzheimer’s disease? A double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol 27:484–487.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mukaetova-Ladinska EB, Arnold H, Jaros E, Perry R, Perry E (2004) Depletion of MAP2 expression and laminar cytoarchitectonic changes in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in adult autistic individuals. Neurobiol Appl Neurol 30:615–623.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Munson J, Dawson G, Abbott R, Faja S, Webb SJ, Friedman SD, Shaw D, Artru A, Dager SR (2006) Amygdalar volume and behavioral development in autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63:686–693.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy DGM, Critchley HD, Schmitz N, McAlonan G, van Amselsvoort T, Robertson D, Daly E, Russell A, Simmons A, Murphy KC, Howlin P (2002) Asperger syndrome. A proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study of brain. Arch Gen Psychiatry 59:885–891.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nacewicz BM, Dalton KM, Johnstone T, Long MT, McAuliff EM, Oakes TR, Alexander AL, Davidson RJ (2006) Amygdala volume and nonverbal social impairment in adolescent and adult males with autism. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63:1417–1428.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nakazato M, Hashimoto K, Shimizu E, Kumakiri C, Koizumi H, Okamura N, Mitsumori M, Komatsu N, Iyo M (2003) Decreased levels of serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor in female patients with eating disorders. Biol Psychiatry 54:485–490.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nathanson NM (2008) Synthesis, trafficking, and localization of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. Pharmacol Ther 119:33–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson KB, Grether JK, Croen LA, Dambrosia JM, Dickens BF, Hansen RL, Phillips TM (2000) Neuropeptides and neurotrophins in neonatal blood of children with autism, mental retardation and cerebral palsy. Neurology 54:A247.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson PG, Kuddo T, Song EY, Dambrosia JM, Kohler S, Satyanarayana G, Vandunk C, Grether JK, Nelson KB (2006) Selected neurotrophins, neuropeptides, and cytokines: developmental trajectory and concentrations in neonatal blood of children with autism or Down syndrome. Int J Dev Neurosci. 24:73–80.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nicolson R, Craven-Thuss B, Smith J (2006) A prospective, open-label trial of galantamine in autistic disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 16:621–629.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Niederhofer H, Staffen W, Mair A (2002) Galantamine may be effective in treating autistic disorder. BMJ 32:1422.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O‘Donoghue DL, King JS, Bishop GA (1989) Physiological and anatomical studies of the interactions between Purkinje cells and basket cells in the cat’s cerebellar cortex: evidence for a unitary relationship. J Neurosci 9:2141–2150.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Palmen SMJC, Hulshoff Pol HE, Kemner C, Schnack HG, Durston S, Lahuis BE, Kahn RS, van Engeland H (2004) Increased gray-matter volume in medication-naive high-functioning children with autism spectrum disorder. Psychol Med 34:1–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pennell PB, Burdette DE, Ross DA, Henry TR, Albin RL, Sackellares JC, Frey KA (1999) Muscarinic receptor loss and preservation of presynaptic cholinergic terminals in hippocampal scelrosis. Epilepsia 40:38–46.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pepeu G, Giovannini MG (2004)Changes in acetylcholine extracellular levels during cognitive processes. Learn Mem 11:21–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perry EK, Lee M, Martin-Ruiz CM, Court JA, Volsen SG, Merrit J, Folly E, Iversen PE, Bauman ML, Perry RH, Wenk GL (2001) Cholinergic activity in autism: abnormalities in the cerebral cortex and basal forebrain. Am J Psychiatry 158:1058–1066.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prasher VP, Fung N, Adams C (2005) Rivastigmine in the treatment of dementia in Alzheimer’s disease in adults with Down syndrome. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 20:496–497.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prickaerts J, Sik A, Van der Staay FJ, de Vente J, Blokland A (2005) Dissociable effects of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors on object recognition memory: acquisition versus consolidation. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 177:381–390.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Purcell AE, Jeon OH, Zimmerman AW, Blue ME, Pevsner J (2001) Postmortem brain abnormalities of the glutamate neurotransmitter system in autism. Neurology 57:1618–1628.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ray MA, Graham AJ, Lee M, Perry RH, Court JA, Perry EK (2005) Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits in autism: an immunohistochemical investigation in the thalamus. Neurobiol Dis 19:366–377.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Risch SC, Horner MD, McGurk SR, Palecko S, Markowitz JS, Nahas Z, DeVane CL (2006) Donepezil effects on mood in patients with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 9:603–605.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ritvo ER, Freeman BJ, Scheibel AB, Duong T, Robinson H, Guthrie D, Ritvo A (1986) Lower Purkinje cell counts in the cerebella of four autistic subjects: initial findings of the UCLA-NSAC Autopsy Research Report. Am J Psychiatry 143:862–866.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rubenstein JL, Merzenich MM (2003) Model of autism: increased ratio of excitation/inhibition in key neural systems. Genes Brain Behav 2:255–267.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rueda N, Flórez J, Martinez-Cué C (2008) Chronic pentylenetetrazole but not donepezil treatment rescues spatial cognition in Ts65Dn mice, a model for Down syndrome. Neurosci Lett 433:22–27.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rupniak NM, Tye SJ, Field MJ (1997) Enhanced performance of spatial and visual recognition memory tasks by the selective acetylcholinesterase inhibitor E2020 in rhesus monkeys. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 131:406–410.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitz N, Daly E, Murphy D (2007) Frontal anatomy and reaction time in autism. Neurosci Lett 412:12–17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scholey AB, Tildesley NT, Ballard CG, Wesnes KA, Tasker A, Perry EK, Kennedy DO (2008) An extract of Salvia (sage) with anticholinesterase properties improves memory and attention in healthy older volunteers. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 198:127–139.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sebat J, Lakshmi B, Malhotra D, Troge J, Lese-Martin C, Walsh T, Yamrom B, Yoon S, Krasnitz A, Kendall J, Leotta A, Pai D, Zhang R, Lee YH, Hicks J, Spence SJ, Lee AT, Puura K, Lehtimäki T, Ledbetter D, Gregersen PK, Bregman J, Sutcliffe JS, Jobanputra V, Chung W, Warburton D, King MC, Skuse D, Geschwind DH, Gilliam TC, Ye K, Wigler M (2007) Strong association of de novo copy number mutations with autism. Science 316:445–449.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Segovia J, Tillakaratne NJ, Whelan K, Tobin AJ, Gale K (1990) Parallel increases in striatal glutamic acid decarboxylase activity and mRNA levels in rats with lesions of the nigrostriatal pathway. Brain Res 529:345–348.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sharma T, Reed C, Aasen I, Kumari V (2006) Cognitive effects of adjunctive 24-weeks rivastigmine treatment to antipsychotics in schizophrenia: a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind investigation. Schizophr Res 85:73–83.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shimazu E, Hashimoto K, Okamura N, Koike K, Komatsu N, Kumakiri C, Nakazato M, watanabe J, Shinoda N, OkadaS, Iyo M (2003) Alterations in serum levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in depressed patients with or without antidepressant. Biol Psychiatry 54: 70–75.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shinohe A, Hashimoto K, Nakamura K, Tsujii M, Iwata Y, Tsuchiya K, Sekine Y, Suda S, Suzuki K, Sugihara G, Matsuzaki H, Minabe Y, Sugiyama T, Kawai M, Iyo M, Takei N, Mori N (2006) Increased serum levels of glutamate in adult patients with autism. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 30:1472–1477.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shuang M, Liu J, Jia MX, Yang JZ, Wu SP, Gong XH, Ling YS, Ruan Y, Yang XL, Zhang D (2004) Family-based association study between autism and glutamate receptor 6 gene in Chinese Han trios. Am J Med Genetics 131:48–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shytle RD, Silver AA, Philipp MK, McConville BJ, Sanberg PR (1998) Transdermal nicotine for Tourette’s syndrome. Drug Dev Res 38:290–298.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soghamarian JJ, Gonzales C, Chesselet MF (1992) Messenger RNAs encoding glutamate-decarboxylases are differentially affected by nigrostriatal lesions in subpopulations of striatal neurons. Brain Res 576:68–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sparks BF, Friedman SD, Shaw DW, Aylward E, Echelard D, Artru AA, Maravilla KR, Giedd JN, Munson J, Dawson G, Dager SR (2002) Brain structural abnormalities in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Neurology 59:184–192.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spiridigliozzi GA, Heller JH, Crissman BG, Sullivan-Saarela JA, Eelis R, Dawson D, Li J, Kishnani PS (2007) Preliminary study of safety and efficacy of donepezil hydrochloride in children with Down syndrome: a clinical report series. Am J Med Genet A 143A: 1408–1413.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinlein OK, Bertrand D (2008) Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors: from the genetic analysis to neurological diseases. Biochem Pharmacol 76:1175–1183.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stip E, Sepehry AA, Chouinard S (2007) Add-on therapy with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors for memory dysfunction in schizophrenia: a systematic quantitative review. Part 2. Clin Neuropharmacol 30:218–229.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sylvester Vizi E, Rozsa B, Mayer A, Kiss JP, Zelles T, Lendvai B (2004) Further evidence for the functional role of nonsynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Eur J Pharmacol 500:499–508.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Szteinkeun OK, Bertrand D (2008) Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors: from the genetic analysis to neurological diseases. Biochem Pharmacol (in press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Tata AM, Cursi S, Biagioni S, Augusti-Tocco G (2003) Cholinergic modulation of neurofilament expression and neurite outgrowth in chick sensory neurons. J Neurosci Res 73:227–234.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tildesley NT, Kennedy DO, Perry EK, Ballard CG, Savelev S, Wesnes KA, Scholey AB (2003) Salvia lavandulaefolia (Spanish sage) enhances memory in healthy young volunteers. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 75:669–674.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tildesley NT, Kennedy DO, Perry EK, Ballard CG, Wesnes KA, Scholey AB (2005) Positive modulation of mood and cognitive performance following administration of acute doses of Salvia lavandulaefolia essential oil to healthy young volunteers. Physiol Behav 83:699–709.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Torrao AS, Lindstrom JM, Britto LR (2003) Nicotine and alpha-bungarotoxin modify the dendritic growth of cholinoceptive neurons in the developing chick tectum. Brain Res Dev Brain Res 143:115–118.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Toyoka K, Asama K, Watanabe Y, Muratake T, Takahashi M, Someya T, Nawa H (2002) Decreased levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor in serum of chronic schizophrenic patients. Psychiatry Res 110:249–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsukada H, Nishiyama S, Fukumoto D, Ohba H, Sato K, Kakiuchi T (2004) Effects of acute acetylcholinesterase inhibition on the cerebral cholinergic neuronal system and cognitive function: functional imaging of the conscious monkey brain using animal PET in combination with microdialysis. Synapse 52:1–10.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Dam D, Abramowski D, Staufenbiel M, De Deyn PP (2005) Symptomatic effect of donepezil, rivastigmine, galantamine and memantine on cognitive deficits in the APP23 model. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 177:381–390.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vargus DL, Nascimbene C, Krishnan C, Zimmerman AW, Pardo CA (2005) Neuroglial activation and neuroinflammation in the brain of patients with autism. Ann Neurology 5:67–81.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vasconcelos MM, Brito AR, Domingues RC, da Cruz LC, Gasparetto EL, Werner J, Gonc Alves JP. (2008) Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in School-Aged Autistic Children. J Neuroimaging 18:288–295.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vincent P, Marty A (1993) Neighbouring cerebellar Purkinje cells communicate via retrograde inhibition of common presynaptic interneurons. Neuron 11:885–893.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walker BR, Diefenbach KS, Parikh TN (2007) Inhibition within the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS) ameliorates environmental exploration deficits due to cerebellum lesions in an animal model for autism. Behav Brain Res 176:109–120.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang D, Noda Y, Zhou Y, Nitta A, Furukawa H, Nabeshima T (2007) Synergistic effect of combined treatment with risperidone and galantamine on phencyclidine-induced impairment of latent visuospatial learning and memory: Role of nAChR activation-dependent increase of dopamine D1 receptor-mediated neurotransmission. Neuropharmacology 53:379–389.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang RH, Bejar C, Weinstock M (2000) Gender differences in the effect of rivastigmine on brain cholinesterase activity and cognitive function in rats. Neuropharmacology 39:497–506.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weidenheim KM, Goodman L, Dickson DW, Gillberg C, Rastam M, Rapin I (2001) Etiology and pathophysiology of autistic behaviour: Clues from two cases with unusual variant of neuroaxonal dystrophy. J Child Neurol 16:809–819.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss LA, Shen Y, Korn JM, Arking DE, Miller DT, Fossdal R, Saemundsen E, Stefansson H, Ferreira MA, Green T, Platt OS, Ruderfer DM, Walsh CA, Altshuler D, Chakravarti A, Tanzi RE, Stefansson K, Santangelo SL, Gusella JF, Sklar P, Wu BL, Daly MJ, Consortium A (2008) Association between microdeletion and microduplication at 16p11.2 and autism. New Engl J Med 358:667–675.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wiker C, Schilstrom B, Sandback C, Wadenberg ML, Svensson TH (2008) Adjunctive galantamine, but not donepezil, enhances the antipsychotic-like effect of raclopride in rats. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 14:1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams RS, Hauser SL, Purpura DP, DeLong GR, Swisher CN (1980) Autism and mental retardation: neuropathologic studies performed in four retarded persons with autistic behavior. Arch Neurology 37:749–753.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wonnacott S, Sidhpura N, Balfour DJ (2005) Nicotine: from molecular mechanisms to behaviour. Curr Opinion Pharmacol 5:53–59.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yip J, Marcon R, Kemper TL, Bauman ML, Blatt GJ (2005) The olivocerebellar projection in autism: using the intermediate filament protein peripherin as a marker for climbing fibres. Int Meet Autism Res Abs (IMFAR) 5:49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yip J, Soghamarian JJ, Blatt GJ (2007) Decreased GAD67 mRNA levels in cerebellar Purkinje cells in autism: pathophysiological implications. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 113:559–568.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yip J, Soghamarian JJ, Blatt GJ (2008) Increased GAD67 mRNA expression in cerebellar interneurons in autism: implications for Purkinje cell dysfunction. J Neurosci Res 86:525–530.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yoo JH, Valdovinos MG, Williams DC (2007) Relevance of donepezil in enhancing learning and memory in special populations: a review of the literature. J Autism Dev Disord 37:1883–1901.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zeisel SH (1986) Dietary influences on neurotransmission. Adv Pediatr 33:23–47.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao X, Leotta A, Kustanovich V, Lajonchere C, Geschwind DH, Law K, Law P, Qiu S, Lord C, Sebat J, Ye K, Wigler M (2007) A unified genetic theory for sporadic and inherited autism. Proc Nat Acad Sci (USA) 104:12831–12836.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zilbovicius M, Garreau B, Samson Y, Remy P, Barthelemy C, Syrota A, Lelord GL (1995) Delayed maturation of the frontal cortex in childhood autism. Am J Psychiatry 152:248–252.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle University, Newcastle General Hospital, NE4 5PL, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK

    Elizabeta B. Mukaetova-Ladinska & Jodie Westwood

  2. Institute for Ageing and Health, Newcastle University, Newcastle General Hospital, Westgate Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE4 5PL, UK

    Elaine K. Perry Ph.D

Authors
  1. Elizabeta B. Mukaetova-Ladinska
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jodie Westwood
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Elaine K. Perry Ph.D
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Elizabeta B. Mukaetova-Ladinska .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Laboratory for Autism Neuroscience Research, Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, 72 East Concord Street, Boston, MA, 02118-2526, USA

    Gene J. Blatt

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Mukaetova-Ladinska, E.B., Westwood, J., Perry, E.K. (2010). Cholinergic Component of Autism Spectrum Disorder. In: Blatt, G.J. (eds) The Neurochemical Basis of Autism. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1272-5_9

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation