Abstract
Mating systems in callitrichids are flexible, but usually only one female breeds. Reproductive skew models suggest that either dominant individuals can control the incidence of subordinate reproduction, and that when subordinates breed, it represents a concession from the dominant individual (Optimal Skew Model (OSM)), or alternatively, that subordinates breed because dominants are unable to control them (Incomplete Control Model (ICM)). We present data both from a captive study and a long term field study to test which model better explains mating systems and female-female competition in Callithrix jacchus. A 10-year study of a wild population allowed us to identify three possible mating systems occurring in groups: monogyny, monogyny with breeding attempts from subordinates (pseudo-polygyny), and polygyny. Comparison of interbirth intervals and time to produce a surviving offspring indicated that polygyny is costly to females, suggesting that females should benefit from monopolization of reproduction. Data from an experimental captive study indicated that dominant females are not always able to physiologically and/or behaviorally suppress subordinate females’ reproduction. The literature suggests that helpers are necessary to ensure the survival of dominant females’ offspring; however, our field data show that not all adults help equally. A few individuals, mostly adult males, participate significantly more in infant care than other helpers, suggesting that dominant females gain little by retaining subordinate females in their groups. These results indicate that dominant females are not able to control subordinates’ reproduction, suggesting that the flexibility of C. jacchus mating systems is better explained by ICM than by OSM.
Resumen
Los sistemas de apareamiento en los calitrícidos son flexibles, pero usualmente solamente una hembra se reproduce. Los modelos de sesgo reproductivo sugieren que los individuos dominantes pueden ya sea controlar la incidencia de reproducción en individuos subordinados, y que cuando éstos se reproducen representa una concesión de los dominantes [Modelo de Sesgo Optimo (OSM)], o bien, que los individuos subordinados se reproducen porque los dominantes no pueden controlarlos [Modelo de Control Incompleto (ISM)]. Presentamos datos sobre un estudio en cautiverio y un estudio de campo a largo plazo para probar cuál modelo explica mejor el sistema de apareamiento y competencia hembra-hembra en Callithrix jacchus. Un estudio de 10 años de una población silvestre nos permitió identificar tres posibles sistemas de apareamiento que ocurren los lo grupos: monoginia, monoginia con intentos de reproducción de subordinados (pseudopoliginia) y poliginia. Comparación de intervalos entre nacimientos y tiempo para producir un descendiente que sobrevive indicaron que la poliginia es costosa para las hembras, sugiriendo que las hembras deberían beneficiarse de la monopolización de la reproducción. Datos de un estudio experimental en cautiverio indicaron que las hembras dominantes no siempre son capaces de suprimir la reproducción de las subordinadas, fisiológica o conductualmente. La literatura sugiere que los ayudantes son necesarios para asegurar la supervivencia de la descendencia de la hembra dominante; no obstante, nuestros datos de campo muestran que no todos los adultos ayudan igual. Unos cuantos individuos, principalmente machos adultos, participan significativamente más en el cuidado de los infantes que otros ayudantes, sugiriendo que las hembras dominantes ganan muy poco reteniendo a las hembras subordinadas en sus grupos. Estos resultados indican que las hembras dominantes no son capaces de controlar al reproducción de las subordinadas, sugiriendo que la flexibilidad observada en los sistemas de apareamiento de C. jacchus es mejor explicada por ICM que por OSM.
Resumo
Os sistemas de acasalamento em calitriquídeos são flexíveis, mas geralmente apenas uma fêmea reproduz. Modelos de viés reprodutivo sugerem que indivíduos dominantes conseguem controlar a reprodução de subordinados, e que sua ocorrência representa uma concessão do dominante (OSM) ou, por outro lado, que subordinados reproduzem porque os dominantes são incapazes de controlá-los (ICM). Nós apresentamos dados de estudos de cativeiro e de campo para testar qual dos modelos melhor explica os sistemas de acasalamento e competição entre fêmeas em Callithrix jacchus. Um monitoramento de 10 anos de uma população selvagem nos permitiu identificar três possíveis sistemas de acasalamento: monoginia, monoginia com tentativas de reprodução das subordinadas (pseudo poliginia) e poliginia. A comparação do IBI e do tempo para produzir um filhote sobrevivente indicaram que a poliginia acarreta custos às fêmeas, sugerindo que elas se beneficiariam da monopolização da reprodução. Dados de um estudo experimental em cativeiro indicaram que as fêmeas dominantes nem sempre são capazes de suprimir, seja fisiologicamente ou comportamentalmente, a reprodução de subordinadas. Relatos da literatura sugerem que os ajudantes são necessários para a sobrevivência da prole da fêmea dominante. No entanto, nossos dados de campo mostram que alguns poucos indivíduos, principalmente machos adultos, participam significativamente mais no cuidado do que outros ajudantes, sugerindo que não há motivos para que fêmeas dominantes tentem reter as subordinadas. Esses resultados indicam que as fêmeas dominantes não são capazes de controlar a reprodução das subordinadas, sugerindo que a flexibilidade observada nos sistemas de acasalamento em C. jacchus é melhor explicada por ICM do que por OSM.
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Acknowledgements
During this project, A.I.A., M.B.C.S. and M.E.Y. were supported by CNPq grants (#521186-97, #301.309-84, and #524409/96, respectively).
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Yamamoto, M.E., Arruda, M.d., Alencar, A.I., de Sousa, M.B.C., Araújo, A. (2009). Mating Systems and Female–Female Competition in the Common Marmoset, Callithrix jacchus . In: Ford, S., Porter, L., Davis, L. (eds) The Smallest Anthropoids. Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0293-1_6
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