Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids in aquatic ecosystems: general pathways and new directions

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Lipids in Aquatic Ecosystems

Abstract

It is now well established that the long-chain, omega-3 (ω3 or n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are vitally important in human nutrition, reflecting their particular roles in critical physiological processes (see Chap. 14). In comparison to terrestrial ecosystems, marine or freshwater ecosystems are characterised by relatively high levels of long-chain n-3PUFA and, indeed, fish are the most important source of these vital nutrients in the human food basket. Virtually all PUFA originate from primary producers but can be modified as they pass up the food chain. This is generally termed trophic upgrading, and various aspects of these phenomena have been described in Chaps. 2, 6 and 7 (this volume). However, while qualitative aspects of essential fatty acid production and requirements in aquatic ecosystems are relatively well understood, in order to fully understand and model ecosystems, quantitative information is needed on synthesis and turnover rates of n-3PUFA at different trophic levels in the food web. The present chapter describes the biochemistry and molecular biology involved in the various pathways of PUFA biosynthesis and interconversions in aquatic ecosystems.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    1 An open reading frame is the portion of mRNA located between the translation start-code sequence (initiation codon) and the stop-code sequence (termination codon) containing the protein-coding sequence.

References

  • Abbadi, A., Domergue, F., Bauer, J., Napier, J.A., Welti, R., Zahringer, U., Cirpus, P., and Heinz, E. 2004. Biosynthesis of very-long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in transgenic oilseeds: constraints on their accumulation. Plant Cell. 16:1–15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Agaba, M., Tocher, D.R., Dickson, C., Dick, J.R., and Teale, A.J. 2004. A zebrafish cDNA encoding a multifunctional enzyme involved in the elongation of polyunsaturated, monounsaturated and saturated fatty acids. Mar. Biotechnol. 6:251–261

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Agaba, M.K., Tocher, D.R., Dickson, C.A., Zheng, X., Dick, J.R., and Teale, A.J. 2005. Cloning and functional characterisation of polyunsaturated fatty acid elongases from marine and freshwater teleost fish. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 142B:342–352

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aki, T., Shimada, Y., Inagaki, K., Higashimoto, H., Kawamoto, S., Shiget, S., Ono, K., and Suzuki, O. 1999. Molecular cloning and functional characterisation of rat ∆6 fatty acid desaturase. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 255:575–579

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alimuddin, Y.G., Kiron, V., Satoh, S., and Takeuchi, T. 2005. Enhancement of EPA and DHA biosynthesis by over-expression of masu salmon delta-6-desaturase-like gene in zebrafish. Transgenic Res. 14:159–165

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Arts, M.T., Ackman, R.G., and Holub, B.J. 2001. “Essential fatty acids” in aquatic ecosystems: a crucial link between diet and human health and evolution. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 58:122–137

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Barclay, W.R., Meager, K.M., and Abril, J.R. 1994. Heterotrophic production of long chain omega-3 fatty acids utilizing algae and algae-like microorganisms. J. Appl. Phycol. 6:123–129

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Beaudoin, F., Michaelson, L.V., Lewis, M.J., Shewry, P.R., Sayanova, O., and Napier, J.A. 2000. Production of C20 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) by pathway engineering: identification of a PUFA elongase component from Caenorhabditis elegans. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 28:661–663

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, M.V., and Dick, J.R. 2004. Changes in capacity to synthesise 22:6n-3 during early development in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Aquaculture 235:393–409

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, M.V., and Pond, D.W. 1996. Lipid composition during growth of motile and coccolith forms of Emiliania huxleyi. Phytochemistry 41:465–471

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, M.V., Dick, J.R., and Pond, D.W. 1997. Octadecapentaenoic acid in a raphidophyte alga, Heterosigma akashiwo. Phytochemistry 45:303–306

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, M.V., Dick, J.R., and Kelly, M.S. 2001a. Biosynthesis of eicosapentaenoic acid in the sea urchin Psammechinus miliaris. Lipids 36:79–82

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, M.V., Dick, J.R., and Porter, A.E.A. 2001b. Biosynthesis and tissue deposition of docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Lipids 36:1153–1159

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, M.V., Dick, J.R., and Porter, A.E.A. 2003a. Pyloric ceca are a major site of 22:6n-3 synthesis in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Lipids 38:39–44

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, M.V., Dick, J.R., and Porter, A.E.A. 2003b. Tissue deposition of n-3 FA pathway intermediates in the synthesis of DHA in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Lipids 38:925–931

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bell, M.V., Dick, J.R., Anderson, T.R., and Pond, D.W. 2007. Application of liposome and stable isotope tracer techniques to study polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis in marine zooplankton. J. Plankton Res. 29:417–422

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bowman, J.P., Gosink, J.J., McCammon, S.A., Lewis, T.E., Nichols, D.S., Nichols, P.D., Skerratt, J.H., Staley, J.T., and McMeekin, T.A. 1998. Colwellia demingiae sp. nov., Colwellia hornerae sp. nov., Colwellia rossensis sp. nov. and Colwellia psychrotropica sp. nov.: psychrophilic Antarctic species with the ability to synthesize docosahexaenoic acid (22:6ω3). Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 48:1171–1180

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Buzzi, M., Henderson, R.J., and Sargent, J.R. 1996. The desaturation and elongation of linolenic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid by hepatocytes and liver microsomes from rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss) fed diets containing fish oil or olive oil. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1299:235–244

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buzzi, M., Henderson, R.J., and Sargent, J.R. 1997. Biosynthesis of docosahexaenoic acid in trout hepatocytes proceeds via 24-carbon intermediates. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 116:263–267

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cho, H.P., Nakamura, M.T., and Clarke, S.D. 1999a. Cloning, expression and nutritional regulation of the human ∆6 desaturase. J. Biol. Chem. 274:471–477

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cho, H.P., Nakamura, M.T., and Clarke, S.D. 1999b. Cloning, expression and nutritional regulation of the human ∆5 desaturase. J. Biol. Chem. 274:37335–37339

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chu, F.L.E., Lund, E., Soudant, P., and Harvey, E. 2002. De novo arachidonic acid synthesis in Perkinsus marinus, a protozoan parasite of the eastern oyster Crassostrea virginica. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 119:179–190

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cripps, C., Blomquist, G.J., and de Renobales, M. 1986. De novo synthesis of linoleic acid in insects. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 876:572–580

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • D’Andrea, S., Guillou, H., Jan, S., Catheline, D., Thibault, J.-N., Bouriel, M., Rioux, V., and Legrand, P. 2002. The same rat ∆6-desaturase not only acts on 18- but also on 24-carbon fatty acids in very-long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis. Biochem. J. 364:49–55

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dawczynski, C., Schibert, R., and Jahreis, G. 2007. Amino acids, fatty acids, and dietary fibre in edible seaweed products. Food Chem. 103:891–899

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • De Antueno, R.J., Knickle, L.C., Smith, H., Elliot, M.L., Allen, S.J., Nwaka, S., and Winther, M.D. 2001. Activity of human ∆5 and ∆6 desaturases on multiple n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. FEBS Lett. 509:77–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Desvilettes, C., Bourdier, G., and Breton, J.C. 1997. On the occurrence of a possible bioconversion of linolenic acid into docosahexaenoic acid by the copepod Eucyclops serrulatus fed on microalgae. J. Plankton Res. 19:273–278

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dunstan, G.A., Volkman, J.K., Jeffrey, S.W., and Barrett, S.M. 1992. Biochemical composition of microalgae from the green algal classes Chlorophyceae and Prasinophyceae. 2. Lipid classes and fatty acids. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 161:115–134

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ghioni, C., Tocher, D.R., Bell, M.V., Dick, J.R., and Sargent, J.R. 1999. Low C18 to C20 fatty acid elongase activity and limited conversion of stearidonic acid, 18:4n-3, to eicosapentaenoic acid, 20:5n-3, in a cell line from the turbot, Scophthalmus maximus. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1437:170–181

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hastings, N., Agaba, M., Tocher, D.R., Leaver, M.J., Dick, J.R., Sargent, J.R., and Teale, A.J. 2001. A vertebrate fatty acid desaturase with Δ5 and Δ6 activities. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98:14304–14309

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hastings, N., Agaba, M.K., Tocher, D.R., Zheng, X., Dickson, C.A., Dick, J.R., and Teale, A.J. 2004. Molecular cloning and functional characterization of fatty acyl desaturase and elongase cDNAs involved in the production of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids from α-linolenic acid in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Mar. Biotechnol. 6:463–474

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hauvermale, A., Kuner, J., Rosenzweig, B., Guerra, D., Diltz, S., and Metz, J.G. 2006. Fatty acid production in Schizochytrium sp.: involvement of a polyunsaturated fatty acid synthase and a type 1 fatty acid synthase. Lipids 41:739–747

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Henderson, R.J., and Mackinlay, E.E. 1991. Polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism in the marine dinoflagellate Crypthecodinium cohnii. Phytochemistry 30:1781–1787

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Inagaki, K., Aki, T., Fukuda, Y., Kawamoto, S., Shigeta, S., Ono, K., and Suzuki, O. 2002. Identification and expression of a rat fatty acid elongase involved the biosynthesis of C18 fatty acids. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 66:613–621

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johns, R.B., and Perry, G.J. 1977. Lipids of the bacterium Flexibacter polymorphus. Arch. Microbiol. 114: 267–271

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jordal, A.-E.O., Torstensen, B.E., Tsoi, S., Tocher, D.R., Lall, S.P., and Douglas, S. 2005. Profiling of genes involved in hepatic lipid metabolism in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) – Effect of dietary rapeseed oil replacement. J. Nutr. 135:2355–2361

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Joseph, J.D. 1975. Identification of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15-octadecapentaenoic acid in laboratory-cultured photosynthetic dinoflagellates. Lipids 10: 395–403

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jøstensen, J.P., and Landfald, B. 1997. High prevalence of polyunsaturated-fatty-acid producing bacteria in Arctic invertebrates. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 151: 95–101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leonard, A.E., Bobik, E.G., Dorado, J., Kroeger, P.E., Chuang, L.-T., Thurmond, J.M., Parker-Barnes, J.M., Das, T., Huang, Y.-S., and Murkerji, P. 2000. Cloning of a human cDNA encoding a novel enzyme involved in the elongation of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Biochem. J. 350:765–770

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Leonard, A.E., Kelder, B., Bobik, E.G., Chuang, L.-T., Lewis, C.J., Kopchick, J.J., Murkerji, P., and Huang, Y.-S. 2002. Identification and expression of mammalian long-chain PUFA elongation enzymes. Lipids 37:733–740

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lubzens, E., Marko, A., and Tietz, A. 1985. De novo synthesis of fatty acids in the rotifer, Brachionus plicatilis. Aquaculture 47: 27–37

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mansour, M.P., Volkman, J.K., Holdsworth, D.G., Jackson, A.E., and Blackburn, S.I. 1999. Very-long chain (C28) highly unsaturated fatty acids in marine dinoflagellates. Phytochemistry 50:541–548

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Metz, J.G., Roessler, P., Facciotti, D., Levering, C., Dittrich, F., Lassner, M., Valentine, R., Lardizabel, K., Domergue, F., Yamada, A., Yazawa, K., Knauf, V., and Browse, J. 2001. Production of polyunsaturated fatty acids by polyketide synthases in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Science 293:290–293

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, A., Cirpus, P., Ott, C., Schlecker, R., Zahringer, U., and Heinz, E. 2003. Biosynthesis of docosahexaenoic acid in Euglena gracilis: biochemical and molecular evidence for the involvement of a ∆4-fatty acyl group desaturase. Biochemistry 42:9779–9788

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, A., Kirsch, H., Domergue, F., Abbadi, A., Sperling, P., Bauer, J., Cirpus, P., Zank, T.K., Moreau, H., Roscoe, T.J., Zähringer, U., and Heinz, E. 2004. Novel fatty acid elongases and their use for the reconstitution of docosahexaenoic acid biosynthesis. J. Lipid Res. 45:1899–1909

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Michaelson, L.V., Napier, J.A., Lewis, M., Griffiths, G., Lazarus, C.M., and Stobart, A.K. 1998. Functional identification of a fatty acid ∆5 desaturase gene from Caenorhabditis elegans. FEBS Lett. 439:215–218

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mourente, G., Dick, J.R., Bell, J.G., and Tocher, D.R. 2005. Effect of partial substitution of dietary fish oil by vegetable oils on desaturation and oxidation of [1-14C] 18:3n-3 and [1-14C]20:5n-3 in hepatocytes and enterocytes of European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.). Aquaculture 248:173–186

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nanton, D.A., and Castell, J.D. 1998. The effects of dietary fatty acids on the fatty acid composition of the harpacticoid copepod, Tisbe sp., for use in live food for marine fish larvae. Aquaculture 163:251–261

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Napier, J.A., Hey, S.J., Lacey, D.J., and Shewry, P. 1998. Identification of a Caenorhabditis elegans ∆6 fatty acid – desaturase by heterologous expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Biochem. J. 330:611–614

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, J.S. 1994. Fishes of the World. 3rd edition. New York: John Wiley

    Google Scholar 

  • Nichols, P.D., Jones, G.J., de Leeuw, J.W., and Johns, R.B. 1984. The fatty acid and sterol composition of two marine dinoflagellates. Phytochemistry 23:1043–1047

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nichols, P.D., Volkman, J.K., Hallegraeff, G.M., and Blackburn, S.I. 1987. Sterols and fatty acids of the red tide flagellates Heterosigma akashiwo and Chattonella antiqua (Raphidophyceae). Phytochemistry. 26:2537–2541

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • O’Hagan, D. 1995. Biosynthesis of fatty acid and polyketide metabolites. Nat Prod Rep. 12:1–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Okuyama, H., Kogame, K., and Takeda, S. 1993. Phylogenetic significance of the limited distribution of octadecapentaenoic acid in prymnesiophytes and photosynthetic dinoflagellates. Proc. NIPR Symp. Polar Biol. 6:21–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Perrière, G., and Gouy, M. 1996. WWW-Query: an on-line retrieval system for biological sequence banks. Biochimie. 78:364–369

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pond, D.W., and Harris, R.P. 1996. The lipid composition of the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi and its possible ecophysiological significance. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 76:579–594

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Qiu, X., Hong, H.P., and Mackenzie, S.L. 2001. Identification of a ∆4 fatty acid desaturase from Thraustochytrium sp. involved in biosynthesis of docosahexaenoic acid by heterologous expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Brassica juncea. J. Biol. Chem. 276:31561–31566

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Robert, S.S., Singh, S.P., Zhou, X.R., Petrie, J.R., Blackburn, S.I., Mansour, P.M., Nichols, P.D., Liu, Q., and Green, A.G. 2005. Metabolic engineering of Arabidopsis to produce nutritionally important DHA in seed oil. Funct. Plant Biol. 32:473–479

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, N.J., and Nichols, D.S. 1999. Polyunsaturated fatty acids in marine bacteria – a dogma rewritten. Microbiology 145:765–779

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sanchez-Machado, D.I., Lopez-Cervantes, J., Lopez-Hernandez, J., and Paseiro-Losada, P. 2004. Fatty acids, total lipid, protein and ash contents of processed edible seaweeds. Food Chem. 85:439–444

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sargent, J.R., Tocher, D.R., and Bell, J.G. 2002. The Lipids, pp. 181–257, In J.E. Halver and R.W. Hardy (eds.), Fish Nutrition, 3rd edition. Academic Press, San Diego

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlechtriem, C., Arts, M.T., and Zellmer, I.D. 2006. Effect of temperature on the fatty acid composition and temporal trajectories of fatty acids in fasting Daphnia pulex (Crustacea, Cladocera). Lipids 41:397–400

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seiliez, I., Panserat, S., Corraze, G., Kaushik, S., and Bergot, P. 2003. Cloning and nutritional regulation of a Δ6-desaturase-like enzyme in the marine teleost gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 135B:449–460

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seiliez, I., Panserat, S., Kaushik, S., and Bergot, P. 2001. Cloning, tissue distribution and nutritional regulation of a D6-desaturase-like enzyme in rainbow trout. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 130B:83–93

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shimizu, Y. 1996. Microalgal metabolites:a new perspective. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 50:431–465

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Simopoulos, A.P. 2000. Human requirement for n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Poult. Sci. 79:961–970

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sprecher, H. 2000. Metabolism of highly unsaturated n-3 and n-6 fatty acids. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1486:219–231

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tocher, D.R. 2003. Metabolism and functions of lipids and fatty acids in teleost fish. Rev. Fisheries Sci. 11:107–184

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tocher, D.R., and Ghioni, C. 1999. Fatty acid metabolism in marine fish: low activity of Δ5 desaturation in gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) cells. Lipids 34:433–440

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tocher, D.R., and Sargent, J.R. 1990. Effect of temperature on the incorporation into phospholipid classes and the metabolism via desaturation and elongation of (n-3) and (n-6) polyunsaturated fatty acids in fish cells in culture. Lipids 25:435–442

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tocher, D.R., Carr, J., and Sargent, J.R. 1989. Polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism in cultured cell lines: differential metabolism of (n-3) and (n-6) series acids by cultured cells originating from a freshwater teleost fish and from a marine teleost fish. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 94B:367–374

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tocher, D.R., Bell, J.G., Dick, J.R., and Sargent, J.R. 1997. Fatty acid desaturation in isolated hepatocytes from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): stimulation by dietary borage oil containing γ-linolenic acid. Lipids 32:1237–1247

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tocher, D.R., Leaver, M.J., and Hodgson, P.A. 1998. Recent advances in the biochemistry and molecular biology of fatty acyl desaturases. Prog. Lipid Res. 37:73–117

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tocher, D.R., Bell, J.G., MacGlaughlin, P., McGhee, F., and Dick, J.R. 2001a. Hepatocyte fatty acid desaturation and polyunsaturated fatty acid composition of liver in salmonids: effects of dietary vegetable oil. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 130B:257–270

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tocher, D.R., Agaba, M., Hastings, N., Bell, J.G., Dick, J.R., and Teale, A.J. 2001b. Nutritional regulation of hepatocyte fatty acid desaturation and polyunsaturated fatty acid composition in zebrafish (Danio rerio) and tilapia (Oreochromis nilotica). Fish Physiol. Biochem. 24:309–320

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tocher, D.R., Fonseca-Madrigal, J., Bell, J.G., Dick, J.R., Henderson, R.J., and Sargent, J.R. 2002. Effects of diets containing linseed oil on fatty acid desaturation and oxidation in hepatocytes and intestinal enterocytes in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Fish Physiol. Biochem. 26:157–170

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tocher, D.R., Zheng, X., Schlechtriem, C., Hastings, N., Dick, J.R., and Teale, A.J. (2006). Highly unsaturated fatty acid synthesis in marine fish; cloning, functional characterisation and nutritional regulation of fatty acid ∆6 desaturase Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.). Lipids 42:1003–1016

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tonon, T., Sayanova, O., Michaelson, L.V., Qing, R., Harvey, D., Larson, T.R., Li, Y., Napier, J.A., and Graham, I.A. 2005. Fatty acid desaturases from the microalga Thalassiosira pseudonana. FEBS J. 272:3401–3412

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Venegas-Calerón, M., Beaudoin, F., Sayanova, O., and Napier, J.A. 2007. Co-transcribed genes for long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis in the protozoon Perkinsus marinus include a plant-like FAE1 3-ketoacyl coenzyme A synthase. J. Biol. Chem. 282:2996–3003

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volkman, J.K., Smith, D.J., Eglington, G., Forsberg, T.E.V., and Corner, E.D.S. 1981. Sterol and fatty acid composition of four marine haptophycean algae. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 61:509–527

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Watts, J.L., and Browse, J. 1999. Isolation and characterisation of a ∆5 fatty acid desaturase from Caenorhabditis elegans. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 362:175–182

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yano, Y., Nakayama, A., Saito, H., and Ishihara, K. 1994. Production of docosahexaenoic acid by marine bacteria isolated from deep sea fish. Lipids 29:527–528

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yazawa, K. 1996. Production of eicosapentaenoic acid from marine bacteria. Lipids 31:S297–S300

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, X., Seiliez, I., Hastings, N., Tocher, D.R., Panserat, S., Dickson, C.A., Bergot, P., Teale, A.J. 2004a. Characterisation and comparison of fatty acyl Δ6 desaturase cDNAs from freshwater and marine teleost fish species. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 139B:269–279

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, X., Tocher, D.R., Dickson, C.A., Bell, J.G., and Teale, A.J. 2004b. Effects of diets containing vegetable oil on expression of genes involved in polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis in liver of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquaculture 236:467–483

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, X., Tocher, D.R., Dickson, C.A., Dick, J.R., Bell, J.G., and Teale, A.J. 2005a. Highly unsaturated fatty acid synthesis in vertebrates: new insights with the cloning and characterisation of a ∆6 desaturase of Atlantic salmon. Lipids 40:13–24

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng, X., Torstensen, B.E., Tocher, D.R., Dick, J.R., Henderson, R.J., and Bell, J.G. 2005b. Environmental and dietary influences on highly unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis and expression of fatty acyl desaturase and elongase genes in liver of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1734:13–24

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Stirling, FK9 4LA, UK

    Michael V. Bell & Douglas R. Tocher

Authors
  1. Michael V. Bell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Douglas R. Tocher
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael V. Bell .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

    Rights and permissions

    Reprints and permissions

    Copyright information

    © 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

    About this chapter

    Cite this chapter

    Bell, M.V., Tocher, D.R. (2009). Biosynthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids in aquatic ecosystems: general pathways and new directions. In: Kainz, M., Brett, M., Arts, M. (eds) Lipids in Aquatic Ecosystems. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-89366-2_9

    Download citation

    Publish with us

    Policies and ethics

    Search

    Navigation