Abstract
The growth of transnational interconnectedness in an ever-integrating Europe is often taken for granted in theories of Europeanisation. However, research on the extent and degree of transnational exchanges and contacts between Europeans is still rare, and data on horizontal cross-border connections and movements are quite limited. Nonetheless, aside from “top-down” political processes, transnational interactions in everyday life possess a quality of their own, and it is necessary to have a closer look at this horizontal dimension of European integration. Thus, in this chapter we attempt to map different forms of “bottom-up” transnational activities in Europe on the basis of available data. We start with a portrayal of the infrastructure of transnational interaction in Europe, the networks of transport and communication, which we consider both as indications of transnational connectivity throughout Europe and as enabling factors of transnationalisation. Subsequently, we turn to several accounts of transnational activities at the grassroots level of society, such as intra-European migration and tourism, student and youth exchanges, town twinning and other forms of regional cross-border cooperation. We will show that there is a high and growing degree of interactions across national borders, which is bringing about a reasonable degree of pan-European connectivity in everyday life.
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- 1.
However, we do not take business relations, economic exchanges and political cooperation into consideration, although we acknowledge that also these kinds of professional relations, and particularly those at the micro-level of society, constitute an important part of horizontal Europeanization. Yet in this chapter we focus on those connections which are primarily social in character.
- 2.
A first comprehensive attempt to “measure” transnationality for the case of Germany represents Mau (2007).
- 3.
One outstanding example of these cross-border construction projects is the Eurotunnel, an underwater railroad connection of about 50 km in length across the English Channel between Calais (France) and Dover (Great Britain). Most interestingly, this project was already envisaged at the beginning of the 19th century, but always postponed due to multiple animosities and mutual distrust between the French and British governments. The final completion of this project, however, had to wait until the end of the 20th century, when both governments decided to realise the tunnel in the spirit of increasing cross-border cooperation and European integration. Today, the Eurotunnel, which was officially opened in May 1994, is used by about 7 million persons per year crossing the English Channel between France and Great Britain (taken from http://www.eurotunnel.com, cited 10 Feb 2007).
- 4.
As of end of year 2006 according to Eurocontrol (http://www.eurocontrol.int, cited 10 Feb 2007).
- 5.
This information derives from a recent analysis of the European low-cost carriers market undertaken by the Arthur D. Little consultancy, Switzerland (http://www.adlittle.ch, cited 10 Feb 2007).
- 6.
The number of passengers increased between 2003 and 2004 in all EU-25 member states. However, by far the highest growth rates can be identified for the eight Central and Eastern European member states, with Slovakia (73%) and the three Baltic States (between 40 and 50%) at the top. Nonetheless, the total amount of passengers is still significantly lower in Central and Eastern Europe compared to the old member states (EU-15) (cf. De La Fuente Layos 2006).
- 7.
The most frequented intra-European air connections are those between Great Britain and Spain (with 33.6 million passengers in 2004) as well as between Germany and Spain (19.3 million). Other highly frequented air connections exist between France and Great Britain (11.1 million), Ireland and Great Britain (10.6 million) as well as Germany and Great Britain (10.1 million). The most significant connections between old (EU-15) and new member states can be found between Great Britain and Cyprus (2.8 million) as well as between Great Britain and the Czech Republic (2.1 million) (cf. De La Fuente Layos 2006; Eurostat 2006).
- 8.
For the case of Germany, see Mau (2007).
- 9.
This information derives from an analysis of telecommunications (“Sprachtelefondienste”) published by the Bundesnetzagentur of the Federal State of Germany. (http://www.bundesnetzagentur.de, link: Sachgebiete: Telekommunikation, cited 02 Feb 2007).
- 10.
For the United States, the OECD indicates that the number of international calls increased from 200 million in 1980 to 5.9 billion in 2002 (OECD 2005: 73 f.).
- 11.
For further information, see http://ec.europa.eu/justice_home/fsj/immigration/fsj_immigration_intro_en.htm, cited 31 March 2007.
- 12.
In the United States the gross regional mobility flow amounts up to 3.05%, whereas it varies in EU countries from 2.28% at highest in the UK to 0.13% in Slovakia (Vandenbrande et al. 2006: 15).
- 13.
The first “big push” of Polish people towards the United States at the end of 19th century is impressively portrayed in the classic study The Polish Peasant in Europe and America of Thomas and Znaniecki (1984 [1918]). The current decrease of Polish immigrants has even become an issue of public debate in the United States (c.f. Joe Carroll, “In expanded EU, Poles no longer flock to the US for a better life”, International Herald Tribune, 8 March 2007).
- 14.
The study was published in March 2007 by the Public Opinion Research Center (CBOS) in Warsaw (http://www.cbos.pl, cited 13 March 2007).
- 15.
These patterns are changing substantially again since the end of 2007, when Poland officially became part of the Schengen area.
- 16.
See http://idw-online.de/pages/de/news174095, cited 29 Sep 2006.
- 17.
It is estimated, for example, that there are more than 500,000 Germans in Spain who have moved there just for the reason of living, rather than for work (Die Zeit, 6 July 2006, 23).
- 18.
It has to be pointed out that business trips are also part of this UNWTO calculation of international arrivals, accounting for 16% of all international arrivals in 2005. However, half of all international arrivals consist of holiday and leisure trips, and another 26% are for “other purposes”, such as visiting friends and/or relatives, religious motivation or health reasons (UNWTO 2006).
- 19.
Short holiday trips of less than 4 nights were not taken into consideration in these calculations. A total of 85.3% of all considered trips lasted 4 to 14 nights, whereas the vast majority of these trips are shorter trips of a maximum of 1 week (4–7 nights). The length of the holiday trips diverged considerably between different European countries (see Bovagnet 2006a).
- 20.
Since 1995 Spain has experienced the highest increase of all EU member states in terms of tourism. While classical top destinations of Europeans, such as France, Austria or Italy, have had difficulties over the same period, it gained most from international tourism within the EU-15 area, together with Greece (European Communities 2006: 38).
- 21.
Stichweh (2000) highlights the importance of research networks and exchange of scientists across and between continents for global integration. In fact, universities and research centres can be seen as one of the most important nuclei of the recent wave of globalization, not least if one only considers the revolutionary effect of internet and digital communication technologies, which were invented and first applied at university level before they started to cover the globe on a mass scale.
- 22.
The only exception is Central Asia where the majority of students go to Central and Eastern Europe or to other countries in Central Asia.
- 23.
The country with the second largest amount of outgoing students in the world is India with 123,559 mobile students in 2004 by the majority going to the United States as well as Australia and the UK, and third is the Republic of Korea with a share of 95,885 mainly travelling to the United States and Japan (UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2006: 132ff.).
- 24.
For reasons of clarity we selected only one or two typical proponents of the different geographical areas of Europe besides the top five countries in terms of incoming students. Data also derived from UNESCO (2006).
- 25.
These three countries are perceived as having the best established and most prestigious study programmes of all European countries as a recent study on the perception of European Higher Education in “third countries” reveals. In fact, this is also often due to a lack of information about other countries (see http://www.iienetwork.org/?p=Perceptions, cited 07 Dec 2007).
- 26.
The current process of “Europeanisation” of educational programmes was stimulated by the Bologna Declaration of the European ministers of education in June 1999. The ministers agreed to increase the compatibility and comparability of higher education in Europe in order to foster the mobility, competitiveness and employability of European students (Bektchieva 2004). For further information, see http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/educ/bologna/bologna_en.html, cited 10 Feb 2007.
- 27.
This name, which intentionally recalls the Dutch theologian and outstanding “European cosmopolitan” Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (1466–1536), serves as an acronym for European Community Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students. Due to the success of the ERASMUS programme. EU support was enlarged in 1995 by the so-called SOCRATES programme, in order to further enhance the quality and further reinforce the development of the European dimension in higher education including teaching staff mobility, curricular innovation and special support for non-mobile students in addition to ERASMUS exchange. Since then, ERASMUS has been a sub-programme of SOCRATES. For further information, see http://ec.europa.eu/education/programmes/socrates/erasmus, cited 10 Feb 2007.
- 28.
Download http://ec.europa.eu/education/programmes/socrates/erasmus/statisti/table8.pdf, cited 02 Feb 2007.
- 29.
Just to mention but a few examples, the French-German University, where enrolled students may acquire degrees or diplomas of both countries during their exchange (cf. http://www.dfh-ufa.org, cited 31 March 2007) the consortium of universities offering a European Master of Business Sciences (EMBS) to foster intra-European exchange (cf. http://www.swan.ac.uk/EMBS, cited 31 March 2007) or private universities like the ESCP-EAP, which offers a number of transnational study programmes at campuses in five major European cities (cf. http://www.escp-eap.net, cited 31 March 2007).
- 30.
AEGEE stands for the acronym Association des Etats Généraux des Etudiants de l’Europe. For further information, see http://www.aegee.org, cited 10 Feb 2007.
- 31.
For further information, see http://www.dfjw.org.
- 32.
For further information, see http://www.coe.int/youth.
- 33.
For further information, see http://europa.eu/youth/.
- 34.
For example, local and regional authorities in Europe can apply for up to four different European awards from the Council of Europe: the “European Diploma”, the “Flag of Honour”, the “Plaque of Honour” and the “Europe Prize”
(http://assembly.coe.int/Mainf.asp?link=http://assembly.coe.int/Committee/ENA/EuropaPrize/prizeindex.htm, cited 10 Feb 2007). The European Union also announces awards for twinning projects and promotes the intensification and establishment of twinning projects in the action framework of the promotion of active citizenship (cf. http://ec.europa.eu/towntwinning/index_en.html).
- 35.
http://www.ccre.org, cited 10 Feb 2007.
- 36.
http://www.eurocities.org, cited 10 Feb 2007.
- 37.
http://www.douzelage.org, cited 10 Feb 2007.
- 38.
For further information, see http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/interreg3/index_en.htm.
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Mau, S., Büttner, S. (2010). Transnationality. In: Immerfall, S., Therborn, G. (eds) Handbook of European Societies. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-88199-7_18
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