Skip to main content

The Concept of Brain Death Did Not Evolve to Benefit Organ Transplants

  • Chapter

Abstract

Before the advent of modern technology, death was considered to have occurred when the heartbeat and breathing ceased, and the soul abandoned the body. The absence of fog on a glass or a mirror placed under the nostrils and the patient’s failure to get up after being called three times by name were popular methods to document death.1,2

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Pallis C. Brainstem death. In: Braakman R, ed. Handbook of Clinical Neurology: Head Injury. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science B.V., 1990:441–496.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Pernick M. Back from the grave: recurring controversies over defining and diagnosing death in history. In: Zaner RM, ed. Death: Beyond Whole Brain Criteria. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic, 1988:17–74.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Wijdicks EF. Brain death worldwide: accepted fact but no global consensus in diagnostic criteria. Neurology. 2002;58:20–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Siminoff LA, Burant C, Youngner SJ. Death and organ procurement: public beliefs and attitudes. Kennedy Inst Ethics J. 2004;14:217–234.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Youngner SJ. Brain death and organ transplantation: confusion and its consequences. Minerva Anestesiol. 1994;60:611–613.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Youngner SJ. Defining death. A superficial and fragile consensus. Arch Neurol. 1992;49:570–572.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Machado C. Consciousness as a definition of death: its appeal and complexity. Clin Electroencephalogr. 1999;30:156–164.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Richardson BW. Suspended animation. Living Age. 1879;142:99–103.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Richardson BW. The absolute signs and proofs of death. Proc Med Soc Lond. 1888;12:100–117.

    Google Scholar 

  10. [Laënnec discovered the stethoscope while seeing children play; his discovery made the diagnosis of heart & chest diseases possible.] Clin Lab (Zaragoza). 1957;64(suppl).

    Google Scholar 

  11. Adler C. Rene Theophile Hyacinthe Laennec (1781–1826), inventor of the stethoscope. Adler Mus Bull. 1981;7:3–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Bloch H. The inventor of the stethoscope: Rene Laënnec. J Fam Pract. 1993;37: 191.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Kerridge IH. Rene Laënnec and the introduction of the stethoscope. Aust N Z J Med. 1996;26:407–410.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Logan JS. An autograph letter of Dr. Rene Laënnec. Ulster Med J. 1972;41:108–110.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Sergent E. [Laënnec as physician.] Dia Med. 1950;22:3430–3433.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Somolinos-Palencia J. [Rene Theophile Hyacinthe Laënnec, on the 200th anniversary of his birth.] Gac Med Mex. 1981;117:122–126.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Tan SY, Yeow ME. Rene Laënnec (1781–1826): inventor of the stethoscope. Singapore Med J. 2005;46:106–107.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Bouchut E. Traité des Signes de la Mort et des Moyens de Prévenir les Enterrements Prématurés. Paris: Bailliere, 1849.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Negovskii VA, Gurvich AM. [The development of the science of resuscitation in the USSR.] Patol Fiziol Eksp Ter. 1967;11:41–48.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Negovskii VA, Bel'skaia TP, Kassil' VL. [Work experience of a reanimation department.] Sov Zdravookhr. 1968;27:20–25.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Negovskii VA, Trusov LN, Ivanov EP. The pathogenesis of thrombo-haemorrhagic syndrome in agonal states and clinical death. Cor Vasa. 1968;10:165–172.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Safar P. Vladimir A. Negovsky, the father of “reanimatology.” Resuscitation. 2001;49:223–229.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Behringer W. [Peter Safar—“father of resuscitation.”] Wien Klin Wochenschr. 2004;116:102–106.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Mitka M. Peter J. Safar, MD: “father of CPR,” innovator, teacher, humanist. JAMA. 2003;289:2485–2486.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Safar P. On the future of reanimatology. Acad Emerg Med. 2000;7:75–89.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Safar P. On the history of modern resuscitation. Crit Care Med. 1996;24:S3–11.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Safar P. Mild hypothermia in resuscitation: a historical perspective. Ann Emerg Med. 2003;41:887–888.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Brat R, Suk M, Barta J et al. [Resuscitation of a patient with deep hypothermia using extracorporeal circulation.] Rozhl Chir. 2002;81:279–281.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Cortes J, Galvan C, Sierra J, Franco A, Carceller J, Cid M. [Severe accidental hypothermia: rewarming by total cardiopulmonary bypass.] Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim. 1994;41:109–112.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Karplus H. Suspended animation and resuscitation. A historical review in the light of experimental hypothermia. J Forensic Med. 1966;13:68–74.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Pinto D, Richard V. Suspended animation. Surg Forum 1962;13:191–193.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Machado C. Randomized clinical trial of magnesium, diazepam, or both after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Neurology. 2003;60:1868–1869.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Meyer JA. Claude Beck and cardiac resuscitation. Ann Thorac Surg. 1988;45(1):103–105.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Zoll PM, Linenthal AJ, Norman LR, Paul MH, Gibson W. Use of external electric pacemaker in cardiac arrest. J Am Med Assoc 1955;159(15):1428–1431.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Bruner H, Hornicke H, Stoffregen J. [Respiration of poliomyelitis patients in the iron lung.] Dtsch Med Wochenschr. 1954;79:1538.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Edmonson JM. A recent museum acquisition: an “iron lung.” Bull Cleve Med Libr Assoc. 1982;28:14–15.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Gros J. [Use of the iron lung in polio.] Munch Med Wochenschr. 1954;96:837–839.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Lasley WH. The Draeger iron lung. Med Bull US Army Eur. 1955;12:11–12.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Maxwell J. The iron lung: halfway technology or necessary step? Milbank Q. 1986;64:3–29.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Murray AJ. An improved iron lung. Br Med J 1956;1(4979):1361.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Wilson DJ. Braces, wheelchairs, and iron lungs: the paralyzed body and the machinery of rehabilitation in the polio epidemics. J Med Humanit. 2005;26:173–190.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Worden G. Steel knives and iron lungs: medical instruments as medical history. Caduceus. 1993;9:111–118.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Wyatt HV. Iron lungs in the service of polio cases overseas in World War II. J R Army Med Corps. 1997;143:53–60.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Bing R, Gibbon JH Jr. Cardiopulmonary bypass—triumph of perseverance and character. Clin Cardiol. 1994;17:456–457.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Edmunds LH Jr. Advances in the heart-lung machine after John and Mary Gibbon. Ann Thorac Surg. 2003;76:S2220–S2223.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Settergren G. Brain death: an important paradigm shift in the 20th century. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2003;47:1053–1058.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Leyden E. Beiträge und Untersuchungen zur Physiologie und Pathologie des Gehirns. Virchows Arch 1866;37:519–559.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Fagge H. In: Ossler W, ed. Principles and Practise of Medicine, 2nd edn. London: Macmillan, 1886:526,551. qtoaref 49: chapter title.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Mr. Jalland. Cerebral abscess secondary to ear disease; trephining; death. Lancet 1892;139[3575]:527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Macewen W. Symptoms of abscess of brain. In: Pyogenic Infective Diseases of the Brain and Spinal Cord. Glasgow: J Maclehose & Sons, 1893:196.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Horsley V. On the mode of death in cerebral compression and its prevention. Q Med J. 1894;2:306–309.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Duckworth D. Some cases of cerebral disease in which the function of respiration entirely ceases for some hours before that of the circulation. Edinburgh Med J. 1898;3:145–152.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Cushing H. Some experimental and clinical observations concerning states of increased intracranial tension. Am J Med Sci. 1902;124:375–400.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Cushing H. Physiologische und anatomische Beobachtungen über den Einfluss von Hirnkompression auf den intracraniellen Kreislauf und über einige hiermit verwandte Erscheinungen. Mitteilungen Grenzgebieten Med Chirurg. 1902;9:703–808.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Berger H. On the electroencephalogram of man. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1969;suppl 28:37.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Berger H. Über das Elektrenkephalogramm des Menschen. Arch Psychiat Nervenkr. 1933;102:555–574.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Berger H. Über das Elektrenkephalogramm des Menschen. Neunte Mitteilung. Arch Psychiat Nervenkr. 1934;102:538–557.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Fischgold H. Hans Berger and his time. Beitr Neurochir. 1967;14:7–11.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Gerhard UJ, Schonberg A, Blanz B. [“If Berger had survived the Second World War, he certainly would have been a candidate for the Nobel Prize.” Hans Berger and the legend of the Nobel Prize.] Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr. 2005;73:156–160.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Gloor P. The work of Hans Berger. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1969;27:649.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Gloor P. Hans Berger and the discovery of the electroencephalogram. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1969;suppl:36.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Haas LF. Hans Berger (1873–1941), Richard Caton (1842–1926), and electroencephalography. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2003;74:9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Wiedemann HR. Hans Berger (1873–1941). Eur J Pediatr. 1994;153:705.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Crile GW, Dolley DH. An experimental research into the resuscitation of dogs killed by anesthetics and asphyxia. J Exp Med. 1906;8:713.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Crile GW, Telkes M, Rowland AF. The physical nature of death. Sci Am. 1930;143:30–32.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Sugar O, Gerard RW. Anoxia and brain potentials. J Neurophysiol 1938;1:558–572.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Crafoord C. Dödsorsaken vid obturerande lungemboli [The cause of death by obstructing pulmonary embolism.] Nordisk Med. 1939;2:1043–1044.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Hill L. On cerebral anaemia and the effects which follow ligation of the cerebral arteries. Philos Trans. 1900;39:69–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Riishede J, Ethelberg S. Angiographic changes in sudden and severe herniation of the brainstem through tentorial incisura. Arch Neurol Psychiatry. 1953;70:399–409.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Löfstedt S, von Reis G. Intrakraniella lesioner med bilateralt upphävd kontrastpassage i a. carotis interna [Intracranial lesions with abolished passage of x-ray contrast through the internal carotid arteries.] Opusc Med. 1956;1:199–202.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Löfstedt S, von Reis G. Diminution or obstruction of blood flow in the internal carotid artery. Opusc Med. 1959;4:345–360.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Wertheimer P, Jouvet M, Descotes J. A propos du diagnostic de la mort du système nerveux dans les comas avec arrêt respiratoire traites par respiration artficielle. Presse Med. 1959;67:87–88.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Jouvet M. Diagnostic électro-sous-cortico-graphique de la mort du système nerveux central au cours de certains comas. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1959;11(4):805–808.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Mollaret P, Goulon M. Le coma dépassé (mémoire préliminaire). Rev Neurol (Paris). 1959;101:3–15.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Machado C. The first organ transplant from a brain-dead donor. Neurology. 2005;64:1938–1942.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Schwab RS, Potts F, Bonazzi A. EEG as an aid in determining death in the presence of cardiac activity (ethical, legal, and medical aspects). Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1963;15:147–148.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Wijdicks EF. The neurologist and Harvard criteria for brain death. Neurology. 2003;61:970–976.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. A definition of irreversible coma. Report of the Ad Hoc Committee of the Harvard Medical School to Examine the Definition of Brain Death. JAMA. 1968;205:337–340.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Gilder SSB. Twenty-second World Medical Assembly. Br Med J. 1968;3:493–494.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Ulmann E. Experimentelle Nierentransplantation. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 1902;11:281–285.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Jaboulay M. Greffe du reins au pli du coude par soudure arte. Bull Lyon Med. 1906;107:575.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Carrel A. La technique operatoire des anastomoses vasculaires et la transplantation des visceres. Lyon Med. 1902;98:859.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Carrel A, Guthrie CC. Anastomoses of blood vessels by the patching method and transplantation of the kidney. JAMA. 1906;47:1648.

    Google Scholar 

  84. Voronoy U. [Blocking the reticuloendothelial system in man in some forms of mercuric chloride intoxication and the transplantation of the cadaver kidney as a method of treatment for the anuria resulting from the intoxication]. Siglo Med. 1937;97: 296.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Hamilton DNH, Reid WA. Yu Yu Voronoy and the first human kidney allograft. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1984;159:289.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Starzl TE. History of clinical transplantation. World J Surg. 2000;24:759–782.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Kuss R, Teinturier J, Milliez P. Quelques essais de greffe rein chez l'homme. Mem Acad Chir. 1951;77:755.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Dubost C, Oeconomos N, Nenna A, Milliez P. Resultats d'une tentative de greffe renale. Bull Soc Med Hop Paris. 1951;67:1372.

    Google Scholar 

  89. Servelle M, Soulie P, Rougeulle J. Greffe d'une rein de supplicie a une malade avec rein unique congenital, atteinte de nephrite chronique hypertensive azatemique. Bull Soc Med Hop Paris. 1951;67:99.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Michon L, Hamburger J, Oeconomos N, et al. Une tentative de transplantation renale chez l'homme: aspects medicaux et biologiques. Presse Med. 1953;61:1419.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Hume DM, Merrill JP, Miller BF, Thorn GW. Experiences with renal homotransplantation in the human: report of nine cases. J Clin Invest. 1955;34:327.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Merrill JP, Murray JE, Harrison JH, Guild WR. Successful homotransplantation of the human kidney between identical twins. JAMA. 1956;160:277–282.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Murray JE. The first successful organ transplants in man. J Am Coll Surg. 2005;200:5–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Merrill JP, Murray JE, Takacs FJ, Harger EB, Wilson RE, Dammin GJ. Successful transplantation of kidney from a human cadaver. JAMA. 1963;185:347–353.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Starzl TE, Marchioro TL, Vonkaulla KN, Hermann G, Brittain RS, Waddell WR. Homotransplantation of the liver in humans. Surg Gynecol Obstet. 1963;117:659–676.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Hardy JD, Webb WR, Dalton ML Jr, Walker GR Jr. Lung homotransplantation in man. JAMA. 1963;186:1065–1074.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Lillehei RC, Idezuki Y, Feemster JA, et al. Transplantation of stomach, intestine, and pancreas: experimental and clinical observations. Surgery. 1967;62:721–741.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Kelly WD, Lillehei RC, Merkel FK, Idezuki Y, Goetz FC. Allotransplantation of the pancreas and duodenum along with the kidney in diabetic nephropathy. Surgery. 1967;61:827–837.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Schwartz RS. Immunosuppression—back to the future. World J Surg. 2000;24:783–786.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Barnard CN. The operation. A human cardiac transplant: an interim report of a successful operation performed at Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town. S Afr Med J. 1967;41:1271–1274.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Barnard CN. Human cardiac transplantation. An evaluation of the first two operations performed at the Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape Town. Am J Cardiol. 1968;22:584–596.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Barnard CN. What we have learned about heart transplants. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1968;56:457–468.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Barnard C. Reflections on the first heart transplant. S Afr Med J. 1987;72:xix–xxx.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Barnard CN. The first heart transplant—background and circumstances. S Afr Med J. 1995;85:924, 926.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. Hoffenberg R. Christiaan Barnard: his first transplants and their impact on concepts of death. BMJ. 2001;323:1478–1480.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Barnard CN. Comments on the first human-to-human heart transplant. 1993. Cardiovasc J S Afr. 2001;12:192–194.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Cooper DK. Christiaan Barnard and his contributions to heart transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant. 2001;20:599–610.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Brink JG, Cooper DK. Heart transplantation: the contributions of Christiaan Barnard and the University of Cape Town/Groote Schuur Hospital. World J Surg. 2005;29:953–961.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Horwitz NH, Dunsmore RH. Some factors influencing the nonvisualization of the internal carotid artery by angiography. J Neurosurg. 1956;13:155–164.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Wertheimer P, de Rougemont, Descotes J, Jouvet M. [Angiographical data concerning the death of the brain during comas with respiratory arrest (so-called protracted coma).] Lyon Chir. 1960 Sep;56:641–648.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2007 Springer

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Machado, C. (2007). The Concept of Brain Death Did Not Evolve to Benefit Organ Transplants. In: Brain Death. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-38977-6_1

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics