Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is classified as a traumatic stress-related condition and is most often discussed in terms of emotional dysfunction. However, given that cognitive and emotional processes are intricately intertwined, implemented by overlapping brain networks, and effectively integrated in at least some of the same regions (e.g., prefrontal cortex, for a review, see Crocker et al. 2013), an abundance of literature now highlights the key role that cognitive functioning plays in both the development and maintenance (or exacerbation) of PTSD symptoms (Aupperle et al. 2012a; Verfaellie et al. 2012). Findings from this body of work detail objective impairment in neuropsychological function in those with PTSD (Brandes et al. 2002; Hayes et al. 2012a; Koenen et al. 2001). Yet despite the impact of neurocognition on PTSD treatment engagement and success (e.g., Haaland et al. 2016; Nijdam et al. 2015) and conversely, the role of PTSD treatment in normalizing cognitive dysfunction, a much smaller literature exists on neurocognitive changes following treatment for PTSD. Even aside from its role in treatment, cognitive functioning in PTSD has significant implications for daily functioning for individuals with this disorder, as cognition is predictive of school achievement, obtaining and maintaining employment, job advancement, maintaining relationships, greater wealth, and better health and quality of life (e.g., Diamond and Ling 2016).
References
Amir N, Beard C, Burns M, Bomyea J (2009) Attention modification program in individuals with generalized anxiety disorder. J Abnorm Psychol 118(1):28–33. doi:10.1037/a0012589
Anderson MC, Levy BJ (2009) Suppressing unwanted memories. Curr Dir Psychol Sci 18(4):189–194
Apfel BA, Ross J, Hlavin J, Meyerhoff DJ, Metzler TJ, Marmar CR, et al (2011) Hippocampal volume differences in Gulf War veterans with current versus lifetime posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms. Biol Psychiatry 69(6):541–548. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.09.044
Aupperle RL, Melrose AJ, Stein MB, Paulus MP (2012) Executive function and PTSD: disengaging from trauma. Neuropharmacology 62(2):686–694. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.02.008
Aupperle RL, Allard CB, Grimes EM, Simmons AN, Flagan T, Behrooznia M, et al (2012) Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex activation during emotional anticipation and neuropsychological performance in posttraumatic stress disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 69(4):360–371. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.1539
Aupperle RL, Allard CB, Simmons AN, Flagan T, Thorp SR, Norman SB, et al (2013) Neural responses during emotional processing before and after cognitive trauma therapy for battered women. Psychiatry Res 214(1):48–55. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2013.05.001
Aupperle RL, Stillman A, Francisco A, Bruce J, Martin L, McDowd J, Simmons A (2014) Cognitive dysfunction in combat veterans is related to attenuated dorsal ACC activation during interference processing. Neuropsychopharmacology 39:S498–S499
Aupperle RL, Stillman AN, Simmons AN, Flagan T, Allard CB, Thorp SR, et al (2016) Intimate partner violence PTSD and neural correlates of inhibition. J Trauma Stress. doi:10.1002/jts.22068
Badura-Brack AS, Naim R, Ryan TJ, Levy O, Abend R, Khanna MM, et al (2015) Effect of attention training on attention bias variability and PTSD symptoms: randomized controlled trials in Israeli and U.S. combat veterans. Am J Psychiatry 172(12):1233–1241. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.14121578
Bailey CR, Cordell E, Sobin SM, Neumeister A (2013) Recent progress in understanding the pathophysiology of post-traumatic stress disorder: implications for targeted pharmacological treatment. CNS Drugs 27(3):221–232. doi:10.1007/s40263-013-0051-4
Bechara A, Damasio H, Damasio AR (2000) Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex. Cereb Cortex 10(3):295–307
Bomyea J, Amir N (2011) The effect of an executive functioning training program on working memory capacity and intrusive thoughts. Cogn Ther Res 35(6):529–535. doi:10.1007/s10608-011-9369-8
Bomyea J, Lang AJ (2015) The role of executive functioning in PTSD and its treatment. Curr Psychiatr Rev 11(3):160–171
Bomyea J, Risbrough V, Lang AJ (2012) A consideration of select pre-trauma factors as key vulnerabilities in PTSD. Clin Psychol Rev 32(7):630–641. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.06.008
Bomyea J, Stein MB, Lang AJ (2015) Interference control training for PTSD: a randomized controlled trial of a novel computer-based intervention. J Anxiety Disord 34:33–42. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.05.010
Bossini L, Tavanti M, Lombardelli A, Calossi S, Polizzotto NR, Galli R, et al (2007) Changes in hippocampal volume in patients with post-traumatic stress disorder after sertraline treatment. J Clin Psychopharmacol 27(2):233–235. doi:10.1097/01.jcp.0000264979.09862.a8
Boyd B, Rodgers CS, Aupperle RL, Jak AJ (2016) Case report on the effects of cognitive processing therapy on psychological, neuropsychological, and speech symptoms in comorbid PTSD and TBI. Cogn Behav Pract 23(2):173–183. doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2015.10.001
Brady K, Pearlstein T, Asnis GM, Baker D, Rothbaum B, Sikes CR, Farfel GM (2000) Efficacy and safety of sertraline treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 283(14):1837–1844
Brandes D, Ben-Schachar G, Gilboa A, Bonne O, Freedman S, Shalev AY (2002) PTSD symptoms and cognitive performance in recent trauma survivors. Psychiatry Res 110:231–238. S0165178102001257 [pii]
Bremner JD, Vermetten E (2004) Neuroanatomical changes associated with pharmacotherapy in posttraumatic stress disorder. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1032:154–157. doi:10.1196/annals.1314.012
Bremner JD, Randall P, Scott TM, Bronen RA, Seibyl JP, Southwick SM, et al (1995) MRI-based measurement of hippocampal volume in patients with combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 152(7):973–981. doi:10.1176/ajp.152.7.973
Bremner JD, Mletzko T, Welter S, Quinn S, Williams C, Brummer M, et al (2005) Effects of phenytoin on memory, cognition and brain structure in post-traumatic stress disorder: a pilot study. J Psychopharmacol 19(2):159–165
Brewin CR, Kleiner JS, Vasterling JJ, Field AP (2007) Memory for emotionally neutral information in posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analytic investigation. J Abnorm Psychol 116(3):448–463
Brewin CR (2011) The nature and significance of memory disturbance in posttraumatic stress disorder. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 7:203–227. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104544
Broyd SJ, Demanuele C, Debener S, Helps SK, James CJ, Sonuga-Barke EJ (2009) Default-mode brain dysfunction in mental disorders: a systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 33(3):279–296. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.09.002
Bryant RA, Felmingham KL, Kemp AH, Barton M, Peduto AS, Rennie C, et al (2005) Neural networks of information processing in posttraumatic stress disorder: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Biol Psychiatry 58(2):111–118. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.03.021
Buckley TC, Blanchard EB, Neill WT (2000) Information processing and PTSD: a review of the empirical literature. Clin Psychol Rev 20(8):1041–1065
Buschkuehl M, Jaeggi SM, Hutchison S, Pasqualina P, Dapp C, Muller M, et al (2008) Impact of working memory training on memory performance in old-old adults. Psychol Aging 23(4):743–753
Callinan S, Johnson D, Wells A (2015) A randomised controlled study of the effects of the attention training technique on traumatic stress symptoms, emotional set shifting and flexibility. Cogn Ther Res 39:4–13
Constans JI (2005) Information-processing biases in PTSD. In: Vasterling JJ, Brewin C (eds) Neuropsychology of PTSD: biological, cognitive, and clinical perspectives. Guilford Press, New York, pp 105–129
Crocker LD, Heller W, Warren SL, O’Hare AJ, Infantolino ZP, Miller GA (2013) Relationships among cognition, emotion, and motivation: implications for intervention and neuroplasticity in psychopathology. Front Hum Neurosci 7:261. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.0026
Crocker LD, Jurick SM, Boyd B, Rodgers CS, Twamley EW, Schiehser DM, Jak AJ (2015) Treatment of veterans with comorbid PTSD and TBI using a hybrid approach. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Anxiety and Depression Association of America conference, Miami, FL
Cusack K, Jonas DE, Forneris CA, Wines C, Sonis J, Middleton JC, et al (2016) Psychological treatments for adults with posttraumatic stress disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev 43:128–141
Diamond A, Ling DS (2016) Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not. Dev Cogn Neurosci 18:34–48
Dickinson D, Tenhula W, Morris S, Brown C, Peer J, Spencer K, et al (2010) A randomized, controlled trial of computer-assisted cognitive remediation for schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 167(2):170–180. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09020264
Etkin A, Wager TD (2007) Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: a meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia. Am J Psychiatry 164:1476–1488
Etkin A, Gyurak A, O’Hara R (2013) A neurobiological approach to the cognitive deficits of psychiatric disorders. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 15(4):419–429
Falconer E, Bryant R, Felmingham KL, Kemp AH, Gordon E, Peduto A, et al (2008) The neural networks of inhibitory control in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci 33(5):413–422
Fani N, Ashraf A, Afzal N, Jawed F, Kitayama N, Reed L, Bremner JD (2011) Increased neural response to trauma scripts in posttraumatic stress disorder following paroxetine treatment: a pilot study. Neurosci Lett 491(3):196–201. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2011.01.037; S0304-3940(11)00073-5 [pii]
Farrow TF, Hunter MD, Wilkinson ID, Gouneea C, Fawbert D, Smith R, et al (2005) Quantifiable change in functional brain response to empathic and forgivability judgments with resolution of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res 140(1):45–53. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2005.05.012
Felmingham K, Kemp A, Williams L, Das P, Hughes G, Peduto A, Bryant R (2007) Changes in anterior cingulate and amygdala after cognitive behavior therapy of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychol Sci 18(2):127–129. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01860.x
Foa EB, Keane TM, Friedman MJ, Cohen JA (2008) Effective treatments for PTSD: practice guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress. Guilford Press, New York
Gage PW, Lonergan M, Torda TA (1980) Presynaptic and postsynaptic depressant effects of phenytoin sodium at the neuromuscular junction. Br J Pharmacol 69(1):119–121
Garfinkel SN, Liberzon I (2009) Neurobiology of PTSD: a review of neuroimaging findings. Psychiatr Ann 39:370–381
Geuze E, Vermetten E, Ruf M, de Kloet CS, Westenberg HG (2008) Neural correlates of associative learning and memory in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Psychiatr Res 42:659–669
Grohman K, Fals-Stewart W, Donnelly K (2006) Improving treatment response of cognitively impaired veterans with neuropsychological rehabilitation. Brain Cogn 60(2):203–204
Haaland KY, Sadek JR, Keller JE, Castillo DT (2016) Neurocognitive correlates of successful treatment of PTSD in female veterans. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 22(6):643–651. doi:10.1017/S1355617716000424
Hakamata Y, Lissek S, Bar-Haim Y, Britton JC, Fox NA, Leibenluft E, et al (2010) Attention bias modification treatment: a meta-analysis toward the establishment of novel treatment for anxiety. Biol Psychiatry 68(11):982–990. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.07.021
den Hartog HM, Derix MM, van Bemmel AL, Kremer B, Jolles J (2003) Cognitive functioning in young and middle-aged unmedicated out-patients with major depression: Testing the effort and cognitive speed hypotheses. Psychol Med 33:1443–1451
Hayes JP, Vanelzakker MB, Shin LM (2012) Emotion and cognition interactions in PTSD: a review of neurocognitive and neuroimaging studies. Front Integr Neurosci 6:1–14. doi:10.3389/fnint.2012.00089
Hayes JP, Hayes SM, Mikedis AM (2012b) Quantitative meta-analysis of neural activity in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Mood Anxiety Disord 2:9
Jaeggi SM, Buschkuehl M, Jonides J, Perrig WJ (2008) Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105(19):6829–6833. doi:10.1073/pnas.0801268105
Jak AJ, Aupperle RL, Rodgers CS, Lang AJ, Schiehser DM, Norman SB, Twamley EW (2015) Evaluation of a hybrid treatment for veterans with comorbid traumatic brain injury and posttraumatic stress disorder: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Contemp Clin Trials 45:210–216
Jenkins MA, Langlais PJ, Delis DA, Cohen RA (2000) Attentional dysfunction associated with posttraumatic stress disorder among rape survivors. Clin Neuropsychol 14(1):7–12. doi:10.1076/1385-4046(200002)14:1;1-8;FT007
Joormann J, Yoon K, Siemer M (2010) Cognition and emotion regulation. In: Kring A, Sloan D (eds) Emotion regulation and psychopathology: a transdiagnostic approach to etiology and treatment. Guilford Press, New York, pp 174–203
Kane MJ, Engle RW (2002) The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: an individual-differences perspective. Psychon Bull Rev 9(4):637–671. doi:10.3758/Bf03196323
Kent M, Davis MC, Stark SL, Stewart LA (2011) A resilience-oriented treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder: results of a preliminary randomized clinical trial. J Trauma Stress 24(5):591–595
Keshavan MS, Vinogradov S, Rumsey J, Sherrill J, Wagner A (2014) Cognitive training in mental disorders: update and future directions. Am J Psychiatry 171(5):510–522. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13081075
Kitayama N, Vaccarino V, Kutner M, Weiss P, Bremner JD (2005) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measurement of hippocampal volume in posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis. J Affect Disord 88(1):79–86
Klingberg T, Fernell E, Olesen PJ, Johnson M, Gustafsson P, Dahlstrom K, et al (2005) Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD – a randomized, controlled trial. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 44(2):177–186. doi:10.1097/00004583-200502000-00010
Koenen KC, Driver KL, Oscar-Berman M, Wolfe J, Folsom S, Huang MT, Schlesinger L (2001) Measures of prefrontal system dysfunction in posttraumatic stress disorder. Brain Cogn 45:64–78. doi:10.1006/brcg.2000.1256
Kuckertz JM, Amir N, Boffa JW, Warren CK, Rindt SE, Norman S, et al (2014) The effectiveness of an attention bias modification program as an adjunctive treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder. Behav Res Ther 63:25–35. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2014.09.002
Lagarde G, Doyon J, Brunet A (2010) Memory and executive dysfunctions associated with acute posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res 177(1–2):144–149. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2009.02.002
Lee HJ, Kim JW, Yim SV, Kim MJ, Kim SA, Kim YJ et al (2001) Fluoxetine enhances cell proliferation and prevents apoptosis in dentate gyrus of maternally separated rats. Mol Psychiatry 6(6):610, 725–728. doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4000947
Leskin LP, White PM (2007) Attentional networks reveal executive function deficits in posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychology 21(3):275–284. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.21.3.275
Lindauer RJ, Olff M, van Meijel EP, Carlier IV, Gersons BP (2006) Cortisol, learning, memory, and attention in relation to smaller hippocampal volume in police officers with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 59(2):171–177. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.06.033
Lindauer RJ, Vlieger EJ, Jalink M, Olff M, Carlier IV, Majoie CB, Den Heeten GJ, Gersons BP (2005) Effects of psychotherapy on hippocampal volume in out-patients with post-traumatic stress disorder: a MRI investigation. Psychol Med 35(10):1421–1431
Levy-Gigi E, Szabó C, Kelemen O, Kéri S (2013) Association among clinical response, hippocampal volume, and FKBP5 gene expression in individuals with posttraumatic stress disorder receiving cognitive behavioral therapy. Biol Psychiatry 74(11):793–800
Marazziti D, Consoli G, Picchetti M, Carlini M, Faravelli L (2010) Cognitive impairment in major depression. Eur J Pharmacol 626:83–86
Mathews A, MacLeod C (2002) Induced processing biases have causal effects on anxiety. Cognit Emot 16(3):331–354. doi:10.1080/02699930143000518
McEwen BS, Sapolsky RM (1995) Stress and cognitive function. Curr Opin Neurobiol 5(2):205–216
McNally RJ (2007) Mechanisms of exposure therapy: how neuroscience can improve psychological treatments for anxiety disorders. Clin Psychol Rev 27(6):750–759. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2007.01.003
Melby-Lervag M, Hulme C (2013) Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review. Dev Psychol 49(2):270–291. doi:10.1037/a0028228
Merzenich MM, Van Vleet TM, Nahum M (2014) Brain plasticity-based therapeutics. Front Hum Neurosci 8:385. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00385
Moores KA, Clark CR, McFarlane AC, Brown GC, Puce A, Taylor DJ (2008) Abnormal recruitment of working memory updating networks during maintenance of trauma-neutral information in post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res 163(2):156–170. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2007.08.011
Morey RA, Dolcos F, Petty CM, Cooper DA, Hayes JP, LaBar KS, McCarthy G (2009) The role of trauma-related distractors on neural systems for working memory and emotion processing in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Psychiatr Res 43(8):809–817. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.10.014
Nassif Y, Wells A (2014) Attention training reduces intrusive thoughts cued by a narrative of stressful life events: a controlled study. J Clin Psychol 70(6):510–517. doi:10.1002/jclp.22047
Neylan TC, Lenoci M, Rothlind J, Metzler TJ, Schuff N, Du AT, et al (2004) Attention, learning, and memory in posttraumatic stress disorder. J Trauma Stress 17(1):41–46
Nijdam MJ, de Vries G, Gersons BPR, Olff M (2015) Response to psychotherapy for posttraumatic stress disorder: the role of pretreatment verbal memory performance. J Clin Psychiatry 76(8):e1023–e1028
Olesen PJ, Westerberg H, Klingberg T (2004) Increased prefrontal and parietal activity after training of working memory. Nat Neurosci 7(1):75–79. doi:10.1038/nn1165
Parslow RA, Jorm AF (2007) Pretrauma and postrauma neurocognitive functioning and PTSD symptoms in a community sample of young adults. Am J Psychiatry 164:509–515
Peres JF, Foerster B, Santana LG, Fereira MD, Nasello AG, Savoia M, et al (2011) Police officers under attack: resilience implications of an fMRI study. J Psychiatr Res 45(6):727–734. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.11.004
Pineles SL, Shipherd JC, Welch LP, Yovel I (2007) The role of attentional biases in PTSD: is it interference or facilitation? Behav Res Ther 45(8):1903–1913. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2006.08.021
Pineles SL, Shipherd JC, Mostoufi SM, Abramovitz SM, Yovel I (2009) Attentional biases in PTSD: more evidence for interference. Behav Res Ther 47(12):1050–1057. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.08.001
Polak AR, Witteveen AB, Reitsma JB, Olff M (2012) The role of executive function in posttraumatic stress disorder: a systematic review. J Affect Disord 141(1):11–21. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.01.001
Puetz TW, Youngstedt SD, Herring MP (2015) Effects of pharmacotherapy on combat-related PTSD, anxiety, and depression: a systematic review and meta-regression analysis. PLoS One 10(5):e0126529
Ravindran LN, Stein MB (2009) Pharmacotherapy of PTSD: premises, principles, and priorities. Brain Res 1293:24–39. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2009.03.037
Resick PA, Galovski TE, O’Brien Uhlmansiek M, Scher CD, Clum GA, et al (2008) A randomized clinical trial to dismantle components of cognitive processing therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in female victims of interpersonal violence. J Consult Clin Psychol 76(2):243–258
Ridderinkhof KR, van den Wildenberg WP, Segalowitz SJ, Carter CS (2004) Neurocognitive mechanisms of cognitive control: the role of prefrontal cortex in action selection, response inhibition, performance monitoring, and reward-based learning. Brain Cogn 56(2):129–140. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2004.09.016
Riemann BC, Kuckertz JM, Rozenman M, Weersing VR, Amir N (2013) Augmentation of youth cognitive behavioral and pharmacological interventions with attention modification: a preliminary investigation. Depress Anxiety 30(9):822–828. doi:10.1002/da.22127
van Rooij SJ, Geuze E, Kennis M, Rademaker AR, Vink M (2015a) Neural correlates of inhibition and contextual cue processing related to treatment response in PTSD. Neuropsychopharmacology 40(3):667–675. doi:10.1038/npp.2014.220
van Rooij SJ, Kennis M, Sjouwerman R, van den Heuvel MP, Kahn RS, Geuze E (2015b) Smaller hippocampal volume as a vulnerability factor for the persistence of post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychol Med 45:2737–2746
van Rooij SJ, Kennis M, Vink M, Geuze E (2016) Predicting treatment outcome in PTSD: a longitudinal functional MRI study on trauma-unrelated emotional processing. Neuropsychopharmacology 41(4):1156–1165. doi:10.1038/npp.2015.257
Roy MJ, Francis J, Friedlander J, Banks-Williams L, Lande RG, Taylor P, et al (2010) Improvement in cerebral function with treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1208:142–149. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05689.x
Sailer U, Robinson S, Fischmeister FP, Konig D, Oppenauer C, Lueger-Schuster B, et al (2008) Altered reward processing in the nucleus accumbens and mesial prefrontal cortex of patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychologia 46(11):2836–2844. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.05.022
Salminen T, Strobach T, Schubert T (2012) On the impacts of working memory training on executive functioning. Front Hum Neurosci 6:166. doi:10.3389/Fnhum.2012.00166
Samuelson KW (2011) Post-traumatic stress disorder and declarative memory functioning: a review. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 13(3):346–351
Samuelson KW, Neylan TC, Metzler TJ, Lenoci M, Rothlind J, Henn-Haase C, et al (2006) Neuropsychological functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder and alcohol abuse. Neuropsychology 20(6):716–726. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.20.6.716
Santarelli L, Saxe M, Gross C, Surget A, Battaglia F, Dulawa S, et al (2003) Requirement of hippocampal neurogenesis for the behavioral effects of antidepressants. Science 301(5634):805–809. doi:10.1126/science.1083328
Schoorl M, Putman P, Van Der Does W (2013) Attentional bias modification in posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial. Psychother Psychosom 82(2):99–105. doi:10.1159/000341920
Schweizer S, Grahn J, Hampshire A, Mobbs D, Dalgleish T (2013) Training the emotional brain: improving affective control through emotional working memory training. J Neurosci 33(12):5301–5311. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2593-12.2013
Scott JC, Matt GE, Wrocklage KM, Crnich C, Jordan J, Southwick SM, et al (2015) A quantitative meta-analysis of neurocognitive functioning in posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychol Bull 141(1):105–140. doi:10.1037/a0038039
Seedat S, Warwick J, van Heerden B, Hugo C, Zungu-Dirwayi N, Van Kradenburg J, Stein DJ (2004) Single photon emission computed tomography in posttraumatic stress disorder before and after treatment with a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor. J Affect Disord 80(1):45–53. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(03)00047-8
Shin LM, Whalen PJ, Pitman RK, Bush G, Macklin ML, Lasko NB, et al. (2001) An fMRI study of anterior cingulate function in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 50(12):932–942
Shin LM, Shin PS, Heckers S, Krangel TS, Macklin ML, Orr SP, Lasko N, Segal E, Makris N, Richert K, Levering J, Schacter DL, Alpert NM, Fischman AJ, Pitman RK, Rauch SL (2004) Hippocampal function in posttraumatic stress disorder. Hippocampus 14(3):292–300
Shucard JL, McCabe DC, Szymanski H (2008) An event-related potential study of attention deficits in posttraumatic stress disorder during auditory and visual Go/NoGo continuous performance tasks. Biol Psychol 79(2):223–233. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2008.05.005
Siegle GJ, Ghinassi F, Thase ME (2007) Neurobehavioral therapies in the 21st century: summary of an emerging field and an extended example of cognitive control training for depression. Cogn Ther Res 31:235–262
Simmons AN, Matthews SC (2012) Neural circuitry of PTSD with or without mild traumatic brain injury: a meta-analysis. Neuropharmacology 62:598–606
Simmons AN, Norman SB, Spadoni AD, Strigo IA (2013) Neurosubstrates of remission following prolonged exposure therapy in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychother Psychosom 82(6):382–389
Squire LR, Zola-Morgan S (1991) The medial temporal lobe memory system. Science 253(5026):1380–1386
Steckler T, Risbrough V (2012) Pharmacological treatment of PTSD – established and new approaches. Neuropharmacology 62(2):617–627. doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.06.012
Stein MB, Koverola C, Hanna C, Torchia MG, McClarty B (1997) Hippocampal volume in women victimized by childhood sexual abuse. Psychol Med 27(4):951–959
Stillman, A. N., & Aupperle, R. L. (2015). Neuroanatomical correlates of PTSD: risk, resiliency, and sequelae.
Takeuchi H, Taki Y, Nouchi R, Hashizume H, Sekiguchi A, Kotozaki Y, et al (2014) Working memory training improves emotional states of healthy individuals. Front Syst Neurosci 8:200. doi:10.3389/fnsys.2014.00200
Thomaes K, Dorrepaal E, Draijer N, de Ruiter MB, Elzinga BM, van Balkom AJ, et al (2012) Treatment effects on insular and anterior cingulate cortex activation during classic and emotional Stroop interference in child abuse-related complex post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychol Med 42(11):2337–2349. doi:10.1017/s0033291712000499
Thomaes K, Dorrepaal E, Draijer N, Jansma EP, Veltman DJ, van Balkom AJ (2014) Can pharmacological and psychological treatment change brain structure and function in PTSD? A systematic review. J Psychiatr Res 50:1–15. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.11.002
Tischler L, Brand SR, Stavitsky K, Labinsky E, Newmark R, Grossman R, et al (2006) The relationship between hippocampal volume and declarative memory in a population of combat veterans with and without PTSD. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1071:405–409. doi:10.1196/annals.1364.031
Tsourtos G, Thompson JC, Stough C (2002) Evidence of an early information processing speed deficit in unipolar major depression. Psychol Med 32:259–265
Tucker P, Zaninelli R, Yehuda R, Ruggiero L, Dillingham K, Pitts CD (2001) Paroxetine in the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: results of a placebo-controlled, flexible-dosage trial. J Clin Psychiatry 62(11):860–868
Tulving E, Markowitsch HJ (1998) Episodic and declarative memory: role of the hippocampus. Hippocampus 8(3):198–204. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-1063(1998)8:3<198::AID-HIPO2>3.0.CO;2-G
Twamley EW, Allard CB, Thorp SR, Norman SB, Hami Cissell S, Hughes Berardi K, et al (2009) Cognitive impairment and functioning in PTSD related to intimate partner violence. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 15(6):879–887. doi:10.1017/S135561770999049X
Usui N, Haji T, Maruyama M, Katsuyama N, Uchida S, Hozawa A, et al (2009) Cortical areas related to performance of WAIS digit symbol test: a functional imaging study. Neurosci Lett 463(1):1–5. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2009.07.048
Vasterling JJ, Brailey K, Constans JI, Sutker PB (1998) Attention and memory dysfunction in posttraumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychology 12(1):125–133
Verfaellie M, Amick MM, Vasterling JJ (2012) Effects of TBI-associated neurocognitive alterations on the course of PTSD. In: Vasterling JJ, Bryant RA, Keane TM (eds) PTSD and mild traumatic brain injury. Guilford Press, New York, pp 82–102
Vermetten E, Vythilingam M, Southwick SM, Charney DS, Bremner JD (2003) Long-term treatment with paroxetine increases verbal declarative memory and hippocampal volume in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry 54(7):693–702. S0006322303006346 [pii]
Verwoerd J, Wessel I, de Jong PJ (2009) Individual differences in experiencing intrusive memories: the role of the ability to resist proactive interference. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry 40(2):189–201. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2008.08.002
Vinogradov S, Fisher M, de Villers-Sidani E (2012) Cognitive training for impaired neural systems in neuropsychiatric illness. Neuropsychopharmacology 37:43–76
Vythilingam M, Luckenbaugh DA, Lam T, Morgan CA, Lipschitz D, Charney DS, et al (2005) Smaller head of the hippocampus in Gulf War-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry Res 139(2):89–99. doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2005.04.003
Walter KH, Palmieri PA, Gunstad J (2010) More than symptom reduction: changes in executive functioning over the course of PTSD treatment. J Trauma Stress 23(2):292–295
Watanabe Y, Gould E, Cameron HA, Daniels DC, McEwen BS (1992) Phenytoin prevents stress- and corticosterone-induced atrophy of CA3 pyramidal neurons. Hippocampus 2(4):431–435. doi:10.1002/hipo.450020410
Wild J, Gur RC (2008) Verbal memory and treatment response in post-traumatic stress disorder. Br J Psychiatry 193:254–255
Wilson EJ, MacLeod C, Mathews A, Rutherford EM (2006) The causal role of interpretive bias in anxiety reactivity. J Abnorm Psychol 115(1):103–111. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.115.1.103
Woodward SH, Kaloupek DG, Grande LJ, Stegman WK, Kutter CJ, Leskin L, et al (2009) Hippocampal volume and declarative memory function in combat-related PTSD. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 15(6):830–839. doi:10.1017/S1355617709990476
Woon FL, Sood S, Hedges DW (2010) Hippocampal volume deficits associated with exposure to psychological trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in adults: a meta-analysis. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 34(7):1181–1188. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.06.016
Wu J, Ge Y, Shi Z, Duan X, Wang L, Sun X, Zhang K (2010) Response inhibition in adolescent earthquake survivors with and without posttraumatic stress disorder: a combined behavioral and ERP study. Neurosci Lett 486(3):117–121. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2010.07.040
Yehuda R, LeDoux J (2007) Response variation following trauma: a translational neuroscience approach to understanding PTSD. Neuron 56:19–32
Zantwoord JB, Diehle J, Lindauer RJL (2013) Using neurobiological measures to predict and assess treatment outcome of psychotherapy in posttraumatic stress disorder: systematic review. Psychother Psychosom 82:142–151
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Jak, A.J., Crocker, L.D., Aupperle, R.L., Clausen, A., Bomyea, J. (2016). Neurocognition in PTSD: Treatment Insights and Implications. In: Vermetten, E., Baker, D.G., Risbrough, V.B. (eds) Behavioral Neurobiology of PTSD. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, vol 38. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2016_62
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2016_62
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-94823-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-94824-9
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)