Abstract
Epidemiological studies of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) provide insights into changing public health trends and their contribution to disease incidence. The current chapter considers how the population-based approach has contributed to our understanding of lifetime exposures that contribute to later disease risk and may act to modify onset of symptoms. We focus on the findings from a recent survey of an exceptionally long-lived population, the Cache County Utah Study of Memory, Health, and Aging. This study is confined to a single geographic population has allowed estimation of the genetic and environmental influences on AD expression across the expected human lifespan of 95+ years. Given the emphasis of this text on the behavioral neurosciences of aging, we highlight within the current chapter the particular contributions of this population-based study to the neuropsychology of aging and AD. We also discuss hypotheses generated from this survey with respect to factors that may either accelerate or delay symptom onset in AD and the conditions that appear to be associated with successful cognitive aging.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Aisen PS, Schafer KA et al (2003) Effects of rofecoxib or naproxen vs placebo on Alzheimer disease progression: a randomized controlled trial. J Am Med Assoc 289(21):2819–2826
American Psychiatric Association (1987) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 3rd edn revised: DSM-III-R. American Psychiatric Association, Washington
American Psychiatric Association (1994) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edn: DSM-IV. American Psychiatric Association, Washington
Andersen K, Launer LJ et al (1995) Do nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs decrease the risk for Alzheimer’s disease? The Rotterdam Study. Neurology 45(8):1441–1445
Backman L, Jones S et al (2005) Cognitive impairment in preclinical Alzheimer’s disease: a meta-analysis. Neuropsychology 19(4):520–531
Baker LD, Frank LL et al (2010) Effects of aerobic exercise on mild cognitive impairment: a controlled trial. Arch Neurol 67(1):71–79
Barnes LL, Mendes de Leon CF et al (2004) Social resources and cognitive decline in a population of older African Americans and Whites. Neurology 63(12):2322–2326
Beck AT, Steer RA et al (1996) Manual for the beck depression inventory-II. Psychological Corporation, San Antonio
Benton A (1992) Benton Visual Retention Test, 5th edn. Psychological Corporation, New York
Benton AL, Hamsher K (eds) (1983) Multilingual aphasia examination. AJA Associates, Iowa City
Blackford RC, LA Rua A (1989) Criterion for diagnosing age associated memory impairment: proposed improvements from the field. Dev Neuropsychol 5:298–300
Bozoki A, Giordani B et al (2001) Mild cognitive impairments predict dementia in nondemented elderly patients with memory loss. Arch Neurol 58(3):411–416
Braak H, Braak E (1996) Evolution of the neuropathology of Alzheimer’s disease. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl 165:3–12
Brayne C, Stephan BC et al (2011) A European perspective on population studies of dementia. Alzheimers Dement 7(1):3–9
Breitner JC, Gau BA et al (1994a) Inverse association of anti-inflammatory treatments and Alzheimer’s disease: initial results of a co-twin control study. Neurology 44(2):227–232
Breitner JC, Welsh KA et al (1994b) Alzheimer’s disease in the NAS-NRC registry of aging twin veterans. II. Longitudinal findings in a pilot series. National Academy of Sciences. National Research Council Registry. Dementia 5(2):99–105
Breitner JC, Welsh KA et al (1995) Alzheimer’s disease in the National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council Registry of Aging Twin Veterans. III. Detection of cases, longitudinal results, and observations on twin concordance. Arch Neurol 52(8):763–771
Breitner JC, Wyse BW et al (1999) APOE-epsilon4 count predicts age when prevalence of AD increases, then declines: the Cache County Study. Neurology 53(2):321–331
Breteler MM, Claus JJ et al (1992) Epidemiology of Alzheimer’s disease. Epidemiol Rev 14:59–82
Brookmeyer R, Johnson E et al (2007) Forecasting the global burden of Alzheimer’s disease. Alzheimers Dement 3(3):186–191
Brookmeyer R, Evans DA et al (2011) National estimates of the prevalence of Alzheimer’s disease in the United States. Alzheimers Dement 7(1):61–73
Carlson MC, Zandi PP et al (2001) Hormone replacement therapy and reduced cognitive decline in older women: the Cache County Study. Neurology 57(12):2210–2216
Carlson MC, Erickson KI et al (2009) Evidence for neurocognitive plasticity in at-risk older adults: the experience corps program. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 64(12):1275–1282
Corder EH, Saunders AM et al (1993) Gene dose of apolipoprotein E type 4 allele and the risk of Alzheimer’s disease in late onset families. Science 261(5123):921–923
Crook T, Bartus RT et al (1986) Age-associated memory impairment: proposed diagnostic criteria and measures of clinical change—report of a National Institute of Mental Health Work Group. Dev Neuropsychol 2(4):261–276
Cummings JL, Mega M et al (1994) The Neuropsychiatric Inventory: comprehensive assessment of psychopathology in dementia. Neurology 44(12):2308–2314
DeKosky ST, Carrillo MC et al (2011) Revision of the criteria for Alzheimer’s disease: a symposium. Alzheimers Dement 7(1):e1–e12
Dubois B, Feldman HH et al (2007) Research criteria for the diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease: revising the NINCDS-ADRDA criteria. Lancet Neurol 6(8):734–746
Folstein MF, Folstein SE et al (1975) “Mini-mental state”. A practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician. J Psychiatr Res 12(3):189–198
Fotuhi M, Zandi PP et al (2006) APOE ε4 positive elderly taking anti-oxidant vitamins E and C in combination with NSAIDs develop less cognitive decline with aging: the Cache County Study. In: 10th international conference on Alzheimer’s disease and related disorders, Madrid, Spain
Goldman W, Price J et al (2001) Absence of cognitive impairment or decline in preclinical Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology 56(3):361–367
Graham JE, Rockwood K et al (1997) Prevalence and severity of cognitive impairment with and without dementia in an elderly population. Lancet 349(9068):1793–1796
Hayden KM, Warren LH et al (2005) Identification of VaD and AD prodromes: the Cache County Study. Alzheimers Dement 1(1):19–29
Hayden KM, Zandi PP et al (2006) Vascular risk factors for incident Alzheimer disease and vascular dementia: the Cache County Study. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 20(2):93–100
Hayden KM, Zandi PP et al (2007) Does NSAID use modify cognitive trajectories in the elderly? The Cache County Study. Neurology 69(3):275–282
Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group (1999) MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol-lowering therapy and of antioxidant vitamin supplementation in a wide range of patients at increased risk of coronary heart disease death: early safety and efficacy experience. Eur Heart J 20(10):725–741
Hebert LE, Scherr PA et al (2003) Alzheimer disease in the US population: prevalence estimates using the 2000 census. Arch Neurol 60(8):1119–1122
Hofman A, Ott A et al (1997) Atherosclerosis, apolipoprotein E, and prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease in the Rotterdam Study. Lancet 349(9046):151–154
Honig LS, Tang MX et al (2003) Stroke and the risk of Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 60(12):1707–1712
in ‘t Veld BA, Launer LJ et al (1998) NSAIDs and incident Alzheimer’s disease. The Rotterdam Study. Neurobiol Aging 19(6):607–611
Jorm AF, Jacomb PA (1989) The Informant Questionnaire on Cognitive Decline in the Elderly (IQCODE): socio-demographic correlates, reliability, validity and some norms. Psychol Med 19(4):1015–1022
Jorm AF, Jolley D (1998) The incidence of dementia: a meta-analysis. Neurology 51(3):728–733
Jorm AF, Korten AE et al (1987) The prevalence of dementia: a quantitative integration of the literature. Acta Psychiatr Scand 76(5):465–479
Kaplan E, Goodglass H et al (1978) The Boston naming test. Veterans Administration, Boston
Katzman R (1976) Editorial: the prevalence and malignancy of Alzheimer disease. A major killer. Arch Neurol 33(4):217–218
Kawas C, Segal J et al (1994) A validation study of the Dementia Questionnaire. Arch Neurol 51(9):901–906
Khachaturian AS, Zandi PP et al (2006) Antihypertensive medication use and incident Alzheimer disease: the Cache County Study. Arch Neurol 63(5):686–692
Kivipelto M, Helkala EL et al (2001) Midlife vascular risk factors and late-life mild cognitive impairment: a population-based study. Neurology 56(12):1683–1689
Kryscio RJ, Mendiondo MS et al (2004) Designing a large prevention trial: statistical issues. Stat Med 23(2):285–296
Langa KM, Plassman BL et al (2005) The aging, demographics, and memory study: study design and methods. Neuroepidemiology 25(4):181–191
Launer LJ (2011) Counting dementia: there is no one “best” way. Alzheimers Dement 7(1):10–14
Launer LJ, Brock DB (2004) Population-based studies of AD: message and methods: an epidemiologic view. Stat Med 23(2):191–197
Launer LJ, Ross GW et al (2000) Midlife blood pressure and dementia: the Honolulu-Asia aging study. Neurobiol Aging 21(1):49–55
Lautenschlager NT, Cox KL et al (2008) Effect of physical activity on cognitive function in older adults at risk for Alzheimer disease: a randomized trial. J Am Med Assoc 300(9):1027–1037
Levy R (1994) Aging-associated cognitive decline. Working Party of the International Psychogeriatric Association in collaboration with the World Health Organization. Int Psychogeriatr 6(1):63–68
Lindsay J, Sykes E et al (2004) More than the epidemiology of Alzheimer’s disease: contributions of the Canadian Study of Health and Aging. Can J Psychiatry 49(2):83–91
Luchsinger JA, Tang MX et al (2003) Antioxidant vitamin intake and risk of Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 60(2):203–208
Lyketsos CG, Toone L et al (2006) A population-based study of the association between coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG) and cognitive decline: the Cache County Study. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 21(6):509–518
Manly JJ, Bell-McGinty S et al (2005) Implementing diagnostic criteria and estimating frequency of mild cognitive impairment in an urban community. Arch Neurol 62(11):1739–1746
Manton KG, Tolley HD (1991) Rectangularization of the survival curve: implications of an ill-posed question. J Aging Health 3(2):172–193
Martin BK, Szekely C et al (2008) Cognitive function over time in the Alzheimer’s Disease Anti-inflammatory Prevention Trial (ADAPT): results of a randomized, controlled trial of naproxen and celecoxib. Arch Neurol 65(7):896–905
Mayeux R, Reitz C et al (2011) Operationalizing diagnostic criteria for Alzheimer’s disease and other age-related cognitive impairment—part 1. Alzheimers Dement 7(1):15–34
McGeer PL, Schulzer M et al (1996) Arthritis and anti-inflammatory agents as possible protective factors for Alzheimer’s disease: a review of 17 epidemiologic studies. Neurology 47(2):425–432
McGinnis JM, Foege WH (1993) Actual causes of death in the United States. J Am Med Assoc 270(18):2207–2212
McKhann G, Drachman D et al (1984) Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease: report of the NINCDS-ADRDA Work Group under the auspices of Department of Health and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer’s Disease. Neurology 34(7):939–944
Meinert CL, Breitner JC (2008) Chronic disease long-term drug prevention trials: lessons from the Alzheimer’s Disease Anti-inflammatory Prevention Trial (ADAPT). Alzheimers Dement 4(Suppl 1):S7–S14
Miech RA, Breitner JC et al (2002) Incidence of AD may decline in the early 90s for men, later for women: the Cache County Study. Neurology 58(2):209–218
Mielke MM, Rosenberg PB et al (2007) Vascular factors predict rate of progression in Alzheimer disease. Neurology 69(19):1850–1858
Morris MC, Beckett LA et al (1998) Vitamin E and vitamin C supplement use and risk of incident Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 12(3):121–126
Morris JC, Storandt M et al (2001) Mild cognitive impairment represents early-stage Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 58(3):397–405
Murray CJL, Michaud CM et al (1988) U.S. patterns of mortality by county and race: 1965–1994. C. f. P. a. D. Studies. Harvard, Cambridge
Norton MC, Breitner JC et al (1994) Characteristics of nonresponders in a community survey of the elderly. J Am Geriatr Soc 42(12):1252–1256
Ostbye T, Krause KM et al (2006) Ten dimensions of health and their relationships with overall self-reported health and survival in a predominately religiously active elderly population: the Cache County Memory Study. J Am Geriatr Soc 54(2):199–209
Ott A, Breteler MM et al (1997) Atrial fibrillation and dementia in a population-based study. The Rotterdam Study. Stroke 28(2):316–321
Ott A, Stolk RP et al (1999) Diabetes mellitus and the risk of dementia: the Rotterdam Study. Neurology 53(9):1937–1942
Paleologos M, Cumming RG et al (1998) Cohort study of vitamin C intake and cognitive impairment. Am J Epidemiol 148(1):45–50
Park DC, Reuter-Lorenz P (2009) The adaptive brain: aging and neurocognitive scaffolding. Annu Rev Psychol 60:173–196
Petersen RC, Morris JC (2005) Mild cognitive impairment as a clinical entity and treatment target. Arch Neurol 62(7):1160–1163, discussion 1167
Petersen RC, Smith GE et al (1999) Mild cognitive impairment: clinical characterization and outcome. Arch Neurol 56(3):303–308
Plassman BL, Langa KM et al (2007) Prevalence of dementia in the United States: the aging, demographics, and memory study. Neuroepidemiology 29(1–2):125–132
Plassman BL, Langa KM et al (2008) Prevalence of cognitive impairment without dementia in the United States. Ann Intern Med 148(6):427–434
Plassman BL, Williams JW Jr et al (2010) Systematic review: factors associated with risk for and possible prevention of cognitive decline in later life. Ann Intern Med 153(3):182–193
Plassman BL, Langa KM et al (2011) Incidence of dementia and cognitive impairment, not dementia in the United States. Ann Neurol [Epub ahead of print]
Price JL, Morris JC (1999) Tangles and plaques in nondemented aging and “preclinical” Alzheimer’s disease. Ann Neurol 45(3):358–368
Price JL, Ko AI et al (2001) Neuron number in the entorhinal cortex and CA1 in preclinical Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 58(9):1395–1402
Quinn JF, Montine KS et al (2004) Suppression of longitudinal increase in CSF F2-isoprostanes in Alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimers Dis 6(1):93–97
Refolo LM, Malester B et al (2000) Hypercholesterolemia accelerates the Alzheimer’s amyloid pathology in a transgenic mouse model. Neurobiol Dis 7(4):321–331
Reitan R (1958) Validity of the Trail Making Test as an indicator of organic brain damage. Percept Mot Skills 8:271–276
Rockwood K, Ebly E et al (1997) Presence and treatment of vascular risk factors in patients with vascular cognitive impairment. Arch Neurol 54(1):33–39
Roman GC, Tatemichi TK et al (1993) Vascular dementia: diagnostic criteria for research studies. Report of the NINDS-AIREN International Workshop. Neurology 43(2):250–260
Sano M, Ernesto C et al (1997) A controlled trial of selegiline, alpha-tocopherol, or both as treatment for Alzheimer’s disease. The Alzheimer’s Disease Cooperative Study. N Engl J Med 336(17):1216–1222
Scarmeas N, Stern Y et al (2006) Mediterranean diet and risk for Alzheimer’s disease. Ann Neurol 59(6):912–921
Scarmeas N, Luchsinger JA et al (2009) Physical activity, diet, and risk of Alzheimer disease. J Am Med Assoc 302(6):627–637
Shipley W (1967) Shipley Institute of Living Scale. Western Psychological Services, Los Angeles
Skoog I, Lernfelt B et al (1996) 15-year longitudinal study of blood pressure and dementia. Lancet 347(9009):1141–1145
Sliwinski M, Buschke H et al (1997) The effect of dementia risk factors on comparative and diagnostic selective reminding norms. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 3(4):317–326
Smith A (1991) Symbol Digit Modalities Test. Western Psychological Services, Los Angeles
Smith PJ, Blumenthal JA et al (2010) Aerobic exercise and neurocognitive performance: a meta-analytic review of randomized controlled trials. Psychosom Med 72(3):239–252
Stewart WF, Kawas C et al (1997) Risk of Alzheimer’s disease and duration of NSAID use. Neurology 48(3):626–632
Strauss E, Sherman EMS, Spreen O (eds) (2006) A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press, New York
Treiber KA, Carlson MC et al (2011) Cognitive stimulation and cognitive and functional decline in Alzheimer’s disease: the Cache County Dementia Progression Study. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci
Tschanz JT, Welsh-Bohmer KA et al (2000) Dementia diagnoses from clinical and neuropsychological data compared: the Cache County Study. Neurology 54(6):1290–1296
Tschanz JT, Welsh-Bohmer KA et al (2002) An adaptation of the modified mini-mental state examination: analysis of demographic influences and normative data: the Cache County Study. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Behav Neurol 15(1):28–38
Tschanz JT, Treiber K et al (2005) A population study of Alzheimer’s disease: findings from the Cache County Study on memory, health, and aging. Care Manag J 6(2):107–114
Tschanz JT, Welsh-Bohmer KA et al (2006) Conversion to dementia from mild cognitive disorder: the Cache County Study. Neurology 67(2):229–234
Tuokko HA, Frerichs RJ et al (2001) Cognitive impairment, no dementia: concepts and issues. Int Psychogeriatr 13(Supp 1):183–202
Unverzagt FW, Smith DM et al (2009) The Indiana Alzheimer Disease Center’s symposium on mild cognitive impairment. Cognitive training in older adults: lessons from the ACTIVE Study. Curr Alzheimer Res 6(4):375–383
Wechsler D (1987) WMS-R: Wechsler Memory Scale-Revised. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, New York
Wechsler D (1997) Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales, 3rd edn. The Psychological Corporation, San Antonio
Weggen S, Eriksen JL et al (2001) A subset of NSAIDs lower amyloidogenic Abeta42 independently of cyclooxygenase activity. Nature 414(6860):212–216
Welsh KA, Butters N et al (1994) The Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer’s Disease (CERAD). Part V. A normative study of the neuropsychological battery. Neurology 44(4):609–614
Welsh-Bohmer KA, Mohs RC (1997) Neuropsychological assessment of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 49(Suppl 3):S11–13
Welsh-Bohmer KA, Ostbye T et al (2009) Neuropsychological performance in advanced age: influences of demographic factors and Apolipoprotein E: findings from the Cache County Memory Study. Clin Neuropsychol 23(1):77–99
Wengreen HJ, Munger R et al (2005). Fruit and vegetable intake and cognitive function in the elderly: the Cache County Study on memory, health and aging. Alzheimer’s Dementia J Alzheimer’s Assoc 1(1): S100
Wengreen HJ, Munger RG et al (2007) Antioxidant intake and cognitive function of elderly men and women: the Cache County Study. J Nutr Health Aging 11(3):230–237
Wengreen H, Munger R et al Prospective study of DASH-and Mediterranean-style dietary patterns and age-related cognitive change. J Nutr Health Aging (in press)
Whitmer RA, Quesenberry CP et al (2011) Timing of hormone therapy and dementia: the critical window theory revisited. Ann Neurol 69(1):163–169
Wolinsky FD, Vander Weg MW et al (2010) Does cognitive training improve internal locus of control among older adults? J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 65(5):591–598
Zandi PP, Anthony JC et al (2002a) Reduced incidence of AD with NSAID but not H2 receptor antagonists: the Cache County Study. Neurology 59(6):880–886
Zandi PP, Carlson MC et al (2002b) Hormone replacement therapy and incidence of Alzheimer disease in older women: the Cache County Study. J Am Med Assoc 288(17):2123–2129
Zandi PP, Anthony JC et al (2004) Reduced risk of Alzheimer disease in users of antioxidant vitamin supplements: the Cache County Study. Arch Neurol 61(1):82–88
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2011 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Hayden, K.M., Welsh-Bohmer, K.A. (2011). Epidemiology of Cognitive Aging and Alzheimer’s Disease: Contributions of the Cache County Utah Study of Memory, Health and Aging. In: Pardon, MC., Bondi, M. (eds) Behavioral Neurobiology of Aging. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, vol 10. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2011_152
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2011_152
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-642-23874-1
Online ISBN: 978-3-642-23875-8
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)