Abstract
This chapter is dedicated to scanning probe microscopy, one of the most important techniques in nanotechnology. In general, scanning probe techniques allow the measurement of physical properties down to the nanometer scale. Some techniques, such as the scanning tunneling microscope and the scanning force microscope even go down to the atomic scale. The properties that are accessible are various. Most importantly, one can image the arrangement of atoms on conducting surfaces by scanning tunneling microscopy and on insulating substrates by scanning force microscopy. But also the arrangement of electrons (scanning tunneling spectroscopy), the force interaction between different atoms (scanning force spectroscopy), magnetic domains (magnetic force microscopy), the local capacitance (scanning capacitance microscopy), the local temperature (scanning thermo microscopy), and local light-induced excitations (scanning near-field microscopy) can be measured with high spatial resolution. In addition, some techniques even allow the manipulation of atomic configurations.
Probably the most important advantage of the low-temperature operation of scanning probe techniques is that they lead to a significantly better signal-to-noise ratio than measuring at room temperature. This is why many researchers work below 100 K. However, there are also physical reasons to use low-temperature equipment. For example, the manipulation of atoms or scanning tunneling spectroscopy with high energy resolution can only be realized at low temperatures. Moreover, some physical effects such as superconductivity or the Kondo effect are restricted to low temperatures. Here, we describe the design criteria of low-temperature scanning probe equipment and summarize some of the most spectacular results achieved since the invention of the method about 20 years ago. We first focus on the scanning tunneling microscope, giving examples of atomic manipulation and the analysis of electronic properties in different material arrangements. Afterwards, we describe results obtained by scanning force microscopy, showing atomic-scale imaging on insulators, as well as force spectroscopy analysis. Finally, the magnetic force microscope, which images domain patterns in ferromagnets and vortex patterns in superconductors, is discussed. Although this list is far from complete, we feel that it gives an adequate impression of the fascinating possibilities of low-temperature scanning probe instruments.
In this chapter low temperatures are defined as lower than about 100 K and are normally achieved by cooling with liquid nitrogen or liquid helium. Applications in which SPMs are operated close to 0 °C are not covered in this chapter.
Keywords
- Scanning Tunneling Microscopy
- Charge Density Wave
- Magnetic Force Microscopy
- Thermal Drift
- Scanning Force Microscopy
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
Abbreviations
- 2-DEG:
-
two-dimensional electron gas
- AFM:
-
atomic force microscope/microscopy
- CDW:
-
charge density wave
- DFM:
-
dynamic force microscopy
- DOS:
-
density of states
- EFM:
-
electric field gradient microscopy
- FM-AFM:
-
frequency modulation AFM
- FM-SFM:
-
frequency-modulation SFM
- FM:
-
frequency modulation
- HTCS:
-
high temperature superconductivity
- HtBDC:
-
hexa-tert-butyl-decacyclene
- LDOS:
-
local density of states
- LN:
-
liquid nitrogen
- LTSPM:
-
low-temperature SPM
- MFM:
-
magnetic field microscope/microscopy
- MRFM:
-
magnetic resonance force microscopy
- NC-AFM:
-
noncontact atomic force microscopy
- PES:
-
photoemission spectroscopy
- SFM:
-
scanning force microscopy
- SFS:
-
scanning force spectroscopy
- SPM:
-
scanning probe microscopy
- STM:
-
scanning tunneling microscope/microscopy
- SWNT:
-
single-wall nanotubes
- TTF:
-
tetrathiofulvane
- UHV:
-
ultrahigh vacuum
References
G. Binnig, H. Rohrer, Ch. Gerber, E. Weibel: Surface studies by scanning tunneling microscopy, Phys. Rev. Lett. 49 (1982) 57–61
R. Wiesendanger: Scanning Probe Microscopy and Spectroscopy (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge 1994)
M. Tinkham: Introduction to Superconductivity (McGraw-Hill, New York 1996)
J. Kondo: Theory of dilute magnetic alloys, Solid State Phys. 23 (1969) 183–281
T. R. Albrecht, P. Grütter, H. K. Horne, D. Rugar: Frequency modulation detection using high-Q cantilevers for enhanced force microscope sensitivity, J. Appl. Phys. 69 (1991) 668–673
F. J. Giessibl, H. Bielefeld, S. Hembacher, J. Mannhart: Calculation of the optimal imaging parameters for frequency modulation atomic force microscopy, Appl. Surf. Sci. 140 (1999) 352–357
W. Allers, A. Schwarz, U. D. Schwarz, R. Wiesendanger: Dynamic scanning force microscopy at low temperatures on a van der Waals surface: graphite(0001), Appl. Surf. Sci. 140 (1999) 247–252
W. Allers, A. Schwarz, U. D. Schwarz, R. Wiesendanger: Dynamic scanning force microscopy at low temperatures on a noble-gas crystal: atomic resolution on the xenon(111) surface, Europhys. Lett. 48 (1999) 276–279
M. Morgenstern, D. Haude, V. Gudmundsson, C. Wittneven, R. Dombrowski, R. Wiesendanger: Origin of Landau oscillations observed in scanning tunneling spectroscopy on n-InAs(110), Phys. Rev. B 62 (2000) 7257–7263
D. M. Eigler, P. S. Weiss, E. K. Schweizer, N. D. Lang: Imaging Xe with a low-temperature scanning tunneling microscope, Phys. Rev. Lett. 66 (1991) 1189–1192
P. S. Weiss, D. M. Eigler: Site dependence of the apparent shape of a molecule in scanning tunneling micoscope images: Benzene on Pt111, Phys. Rev. Lett. 71 (1992) 3139–3142
D. M. Eigler, E. K. Schweizer: Positioning single atoms with a scanning tunneling microscope, Nature 344 (1990) 524–526
H. Hug, B. Stiefel, P. J. A. van Schendel, A. Moser, S. Martin, H.-J. Güntherodt: A low temperature ultrahigh vacuum scanning force microscope, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 70 (1999) 3627–3640
S. Behler, M. K. Rose, D. F. Ogletree, F. Salmeron: Method to characterize the vibrational response of a beetle type scanning tunneling microscope, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68 (1997) 124–128
C. Wittneven, R. Dombrowski, S. H. Pan, R. Wiesendanger: A low-temperature ultrahigh-vacuum scanning tunneling microscope with rotatable magnetic field, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 68 (1997) 3806–3810
W. Allers, A. Schwarz, U. D. Schwarz, R. Wiesendanger: A scanning force microscope with atomic resolution in ultrahigh vacuum and at low temperatures, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 69 (1998) 221–225
G. Dujardin, R. E. Walkup, Ph. Avouris: Dissociation of individual molecules with electrons from the tip of a scanning tunneling microscope, Science 255 (1992) 1232–1235
H. J. Lee, W. Ho: Single-bond formation and characterization with a scanning tunneling microscope, Science 286 (1999) 1719–1722
R. Berndt, R. Gaisch, J. K. Gimzewski, B. Reihl, R. R. Schlittler, W. D. Schneider, M. Tschudy: Photon emission at molecular resolution induced by a scanning tunneling microscope, Science 262 (1993) 1425–1427
B. G. Briner, M. Doering, H. P. Rust, A. M. Bradshaw: Microscopic diffusion enhanced by adsorbate interaction, Science 278 (1997) 257–260
J. Kliewer, R. Berndt, E. V. Chulkov, V. M. Silkin, P. M. Echenique, S. Crampin: Dimensionality effects in the lifetime of surface states, Science 288 (2000) 1399–1401
M. F. Crommie, C. P. Lutz, D. M. Eigler: Imaging standing waves in a two-dimensional electron gas, Nature 363 (1993) 524–527
B. C. Stipe, M. A. Rezaei, W. Ho: Single-molecule vibrational spectroscopy and microscopy, Science 280 (1998) 1732–1735
H. J. Lee, W. Ho: Structural determination by single-molecule vibrational spectroscopy and microscopy: Contrast between copper and iron carbonyls, Phys. Rev. B 61 (2000) R16347–R16350
C. W. J. Beenakker, H. van Houten: Quantum transport in semiconductor nanostructures, Solid State Phys. 44 (1991) 1–228
S. H. Pan, E. W. Hudson, K. M. Lang, H. Eisaki, S. Uchida, J. C. Davis: Imaging the effects of individual zinc impurity atoms on superconductivity in Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ, Nature 403 (2000) 746–750
R. S. Becker, J. A. Golovchenko, B. S. Swartzentruber: Atomic-scale surface modifications using a tunneling microscope, Nature 325 (1987) 419–42
J. A. Stroscio, D. M. Eigler: Atomic and molecular manipulation with the scanning tunneling microscope, Science 254 (1991) 1319–1326
L. Bartels, G. Meyer, K. H. Rieder: Basic steps of lateral manipulation of single atoms and diatomic clusters with a scanning tunneling microscope, Phys. Rev. Lett. 79 (1997) 697–700
J. J. Schulz, R. Koch, K. H. Rieder: New mechanism for single atom manipulation, Phys. Rev. Lett. 84 (2000) 4597–4600
T. C. Shen, C. Wang, G. C. Abeln, J. R. Tucker, J. W. Lyding, Ph. Avouris, R. E. Walkup: Atomic-scale desorption through electronic and vibrational excitation mechanisms, Science 268 (1995) 1590–1592
T. Komeda, Y. Kim, M. Kawai, B. N. J. Persson, H. Ueba: Lateral hopping of molecules induced by excitations of internal vibration mode, Science 295 (2002) 2055–2058
Y. W. Mo: Reversible rotation of antimony dimers on the silicon(001) surface with a scanning tunneling microscope, Science 261 (1993) 886–888
B. C. Stipe, M. A. Rezaei, W. Ho: Inducing and viewing the rotational motion of a single molecule, Science 279 (1998) 1907–1909
F. Moresco, G. Meyer, K. H. Rieder, H. Tang, A. Gourdon, C. Joachim: Conformational changes of single molecules by scanning tunneling microscopy manipulation: a route to molecular switching, Phys. Rev. Lett. 86 (2001) 672–675
S. W. Hla, L. Bartels, G. Meyer, K. H. Rieder: Inducing all steps of a chemical reaction with the scanning tunneling microscope tip: Towards single molecule engineering, Phys. Rev. Lett. 85 (2000) 2777–2780
E. Ganz, S. K. Theiss, I. S. Hwang, J. Golovchenko: Direct measurement of diffusion by hot tunneling microscopy: Activations energy, anisotropy, and long jumps, Phys. Rev. Lett. 68 (1992) 1567–1570
M. Schuhnack, T. R. Linderoth, F. Rosei, E. Laegsgaard, I. Stensgaard, F. Besenbacher: Long jumps in the surface diffusion of large molecules, Phys. Rev. Lett. 88 (2002) 156102, 1–4
L. J. Lauhon, W. Ho: Direct observation of the quantum tunneling of single hydrogen atoms with a scanning tunneling microscope, Phys. Rev. Lett. 85 (2000) 4566–4569
N. Kitamura, M. Lagally, M. B. Webb: Real-time observation of vacancy diffusion on Si(001)-(2×1) by scanning tunneling microscopy, Phys. Rev. Lett. 71 (1993) 2082–2085
M. Morgenstern, T. Michely, G. Comsa: Onset of interstitial diffusion determined by scanning tunneling microscopy, Phys. Rev. Lett. 79 (1997) 1305–1308
K. Morgenstern, G. Rosenfeld, B. Poelsema, G. Comsa: Brownian motion of vacancy islands on Ag(111), Phys. Rev. Lett. 74 (1995) 2058–2061
B. Reihl, J. H. Coombs, J. K. Gimzewski: Local inverse photoemission with the scanning tunneling microscope, Surf. Sci. 211–212 (1989) 156–164
R. Berndt, J. K. Gimzewski, P. Johansson: Inelastic tunneling excitation of tip-induced plasmon modes on noble-metal surfaces, Phys. Rev. Lett. 67 (1991) 3796–3799
P. Johansson, R. Monreal, P. Apell: Theory for light emission from a scanning tunneling microscope, Phys. Rev. B 42 (1990) 9210–9213
J. Aizpurua, G. Hoffmann, S. P. Apell, R. Berndt: Electromagnetic coupling on an atomic scale, Phys. Rev. Lett. 89 (2002) 156803, 1–4
G. Hoffmann, J. Kliewer, R. Berndt: Luminescence from metallic quantum wells in a scanning tunneling microscope, Phys. Rev. Lett. 78 (2001) 176803, 1–4
A. Downes, M. E. Welland: Photon emission from Si(111)-(7×7) induced by scanning tunneling microscopy: atomic scale and material contrast, Phys. Rev. Lett. 81 (1998) 1857–1860
M. Kemerink, K. Sauthoff, P. M. Koenraad, J. W. Geritsen, H. van Kempen, J. H. Wolter: Optical detection of ballistic electrons injected by a scanning-tunneling microscope, Phys. Rev. Lett. 86 (2001) 2404–2407
J. Tersoff, D. R. Hamann: Theory and application for the scanning tunneling microscope, Phys. Rev. Lett. 50 (1983) 1998–2001
C. J. Chen: Introduction to Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford 1993)
J. Winterlin, J. Wiechers, H. Brune, T. Gritsch, H. Hofer, R. J. Behm: Atomic-resolution imaging of close-packed metal surfaces by scanning tunneling microscopy, Phys. Rev. Lett. 62 (1989) 59–62
A. L. Vazquez de Parga, O. S. Hernan, R. Miranda, A. Levy Yeyati, N. Mingo, A. Martin-Rodero, F. Flores: Electron resonances in sharp tips and their role in tunneling spectroscopy, Phys. Rev. Lett. 80 (1998) 357–360
S. H. Pan, E. W. Hudson, J. C. Davis: Vacuum tunneling of superconducting quasiparticles from atomically sharp scanning tunneling microscope tips, Appl. Phys. Lett. 73 (1998) 2992–2994
J. T. Li, W. D. Schneider, R. Berndt, O. R. Bryant, S. Crampin: Surface-state lifetime measured by scanning tunneling spectroscopy, Phys. Rev. Lett. 81 (1998) 4464–4467
L. Bürgi, O. Jeandupeux, H. Brune, K. Kern: Probing hot-electron dynamics with a cold scanning tunneling microscope, Phys. Rev. Lett. 82 (1999) 4516–4519
J. W. G. Wildoer, C. J. P. M. Harmans, H. van Kempen: Observation of Landau levels at the InAs(110) surface by scanning tunneling spectroscopy, Phys. Rev. B 55 (1997) R16013–R16016
M. Morgenstern, V. Gudmundsson, C. Wittneven, R. Dombrowski, R. Wiesendanger: Nonlocality of the exchange interaction probed by scanning tunneling spectroscopy, Phys. Rev. B 63 (2001) 201301(R), 1–4
M. V. Grishin, F. I. Dalidchik, S. A. Kovalevskii, N. N. Kolchenko, B. R. Shub: Isotope effect in the vibrational spectra of water measured in experiments with a scanning tunneling microscope, JETP Lett. 66 (1997) 37–40
A. Hewson: From the Kondo Effect to Heavy Fermions (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge 1993)
V. Madhavan, W. Chen, T. Jamneala, M. F. Crommie, N. S. Wingreen: Tunneling into a single magnetic atom: Spectroscopic evidence of the Kondo resonance, Science 280 (1998) 567–569
J. Li, W. D. Schneider, R. Berndt, B. Delley: Kondo scattering observed at a single magnetic impurity, Phys. Rev. Lett. 80 (1998) 2893–2896
T. W. Odom, J. L. Huang, C. L. Cheung, C. M. Lieber: Magnetic clusters on single-walled carbon nanotubes: the Kondo effect in a one-dimensional host, Science 290 (2000) 1549–1552
M. Ouyang, J. L. Huang, C. L. Cheung, C. M. Lieber: Energy gaps in metallic single-walled carbon nanotubes, Science 292 (2001) 702–705
U. Fano: Effects of configuration interaction on intensities and phase shifts, Phys. Rev. 124 (1961) 1866–1878
H. C. Manoharan, C. P. Lutz, D. M. Eigler: Quantum mirages formed by coherent projection of electronic structure, Nature 403 (2000) 512–515
O. Y. Kolesnychenko, R. de Kort, M. I. Katsnelson, A. I. Lichtenstein, H. van Kempen: Real-space observation of an orbital Kondo resonance on the Cr(001) surface, Nature 415 (2002) 507–509
H. A. Mizes, J. S. Foster: Long-range electronic perturbations caused by defects using scanning tunneling microscopy, Science 244 (1989) 559–562
P. T. Sprunger, L. Petersen, E. W. Plummer, E. Laegsgaard, F. Besenbacher: Giant Friedel oscillations on beryllium (0001) surface, Science 275 (1997) 1764–1767
P. Hofmann, B. G. Briner, M. Doering, H. P. Rust, E. W. Plummer, A. M. Bradshaw: Anisotropic two-dimensional Friedel oscillations, Phys. Rev. Lett. 79 (1997) 265–268
E. J. Heller, M. F. Crommie, C. P. Lutz, D. M. Eigler: Scattering and adsorption of surface electron waves in quantum corrals, Nature 369 (1994) 464–466
M. C. M. M. van der Wielen, A. J. A. van Roij, H. van Kempen: Direct observation of Friedel oscillations around incorporated SiGa dopants in GaAs by low-temperature scanning tunneling microscopy, Phys. Rev. Lett. 76 (1996) 1075–1078
O. Millo, D. Katz, Y. W. Cao, U. Banin: Imaging and spectroscopy of artificial-atom states in core/shell nanocrystal quantum dots, Phys. Rev. Lett. 86 (2001) 5751–5754
L. C. Venema, J. W. G. Wildoer, J. W. Janssen, S. J. Tans, L. J. T. Tuinstra, L. P. Kouwenhoven, C. Dekker: Imaging electron wave functions of quantized energy levels in carbon nanotubes, Nature 283 (1999) 52–55
S. G. Lemay, J. W. Jannsen, M. van den Hout, M. Mooij, M. J. Bronikowski, P. A. Willis, R. E. Smalley, L. P. Kouwenhoven, C. Dekker: Two-dimensional imaging of electronic wavefunctions in carbon nanotubes, Nature 412 (2001) 617–620
C. Wittneven, R. Dombrowski, M. Morgenstern, R. Wiesendanger: Scattering states of ionized dopants probed by low temperature scanning tunneling spectroscopy, Phys. Rev. Lett. 81 (1998) 5616–5619
D. Haude, M. Morgenstern, I. Meinel, R. Wiesendanger: Local density of states of a three-dimensional conductor in the extreme quantum limit, Phys. Rev. Lett. 86 (2001) 1582–1585
R. Joynt, R. E. Prange: Conditions for the quantum Hall effect, Phys. Rev. B 29 (1984) 3303–3317
M. Morgenstern, J. Klijn, C. Meyer, M. Getzlaff, R. Adelung, R. A. Römer, K. Rossnagel, L. Kipp, M. Skibowski, R. Wiesendanger: Direct comparison between potential landscape and local density of states in a disordered two-dimensional electron system, Phys. Rev. Lett. 89 (2002) 136806, 1–4
E. Abrahams, P. W. Anderson, D. C. Licciardello, T. V. Ramakrishnan: Scaling theory of localization: absence of quantum diffusion in two dimensions, Phys. Rev. Lett. 42 (1979) 673–676
M. Morgenstern, J. Klijn, R. Wiesendanger: Real space observation of drift states in a two-dimensional electron system at high magnetic fields, Phys. Rev. Lett. 90 (2003) 056804, 1–4
R. E. Peierls: Quantum Theory of Solids (Clarendon, Oxford 1955)
C. G. Slough, W. W. McNairy, R. V. Coleman, B. Drake, P. K. Hansma: Charge-density waves studied with the use of a scanning tunneling microscope, Phys. Rev. B 34 (1986) 994–1005
X. L. Wu, C. M. Lieber: Hexagonal domain-like charge-density wave of TaS2 determined by scanning tunneling microscopy, Science 243 (1989) 1703–1705
T. Nishiguchi, M. Kageshima, N. Ara-Kato, A. Kawazu: Behaviour of charge density waves in a one-dimensional organic conductor visualized by scanning tunneling microscopy, Phys. Rev. Lett. 81 (1998) 3187–3190
X. L. Wu, C. M. Lieber: Direct observation of growth and melting of the hexagonal-domain charge-density-wave phase in 1 T-TaS2 by scanning tunneling microscopy, Phys. Rev. Lett. 64 (1990) 1150–1153
J. M. Carpinelli, H. H. Weitering, E. W. Plummer, R. Stumpf: Direct observation of a surface charge density wave, Nature 381 (1996) 398–400
H. H. Weitering, J. M. Carpinelli, A. V. Melechenko, J. Zhang, M. Bartkowiak, E. W. Plummer: Defect-mediated condensation of a charge density wave, Science 285 (1999) 2107–2110
H. W. Yeom, S. Takeda, E. Rotenberg, I. Matsuda, K. Horikoshi, J. Schäfer, C. M. Lee, S. D. Kevan, T. Ohta, T. Nagao, S. Hasegawa: Instability and charge density wave of metallic quantum chains on a silicon surface, Phys. Rev. Lett. 82 (1999) 4898–4901
K. Swamy, A. Menzel, R. Beer, E. Bertel: Charge-density waves in self-assembled halogen-bridged metal chains, Phys. Rev. Lett. 86 (2001) 1299–1302
J. J. Kim, W. Yamaguchi, T. Hasegawa, K. Kitazawa: Observation of Mott localization gap using low temperature scanning tunneling spectroscopy in commensurate 1 T-TaSe2, Phys. Rev. Lett. 73 (1994) 2103–2106
J. Bardeen, L. N. Cooper, J. R. Schrieffer: Theory of superconductivity, Phys. Rev. 108 (1957) 1175–1204
A. Yazdani, B. A. Jones, C. P. Lutz, M. F. Crommie, D. M. Eigler: Probing the local effects of magnetic impurities on superconductivity, Science 275 (1997) 1767–1770
S. H. Tessmer, M. B. Tarlie, D. J. van Harlingen, D. L. Maslov, P. M. Goldbart: Probing the superconducting proximity effect in NbSe2 by scanning tunneling micrsocopy, Phys. Rev. Lett 77 (1996) 924–927
K. Inoue, H. Takayanagi: Local tunneling spectroscopy of Nb/InAs/Nb superconducting proximity system with a scanning tunneling microscope, Phys. Rev. B 43 (1991) 6214–6215
H. F. Hess, R. B. Robinson, R. C. Dynes, J. M. Valles, J. V. Waszczak: Scanning-tunneling-microscope observation of the Abrikosov flux lattice and the density of states near and inside a fluxoid, Phys. Rev. Lett. 62 (1989) 214–217
H. F. Hess, R. B. Robinson, J. V. Waszczak: Vortex-core structure observed with a scanning tunneling microscope, Phys. Rev. Lett. 64 (1990) 2711–2714
N. Hayashi, M. Ichioka, K. Machida: Star-shaped local density of states around vortices in a type-II superconductor, Phys. Rev. Lett. 77 (1996) 4074–4077
H. Sakata, M. Oosawa, K. Matsuba, N. Nishida: Imaging of vortex lattice transition in YNi2B2C by scanning tunneling spectroscopy, Phys. Rev. Lett. 84 (2000) 1583–1586
S. Behler, S. H. Pan, P. Jess, A. Baratoff, H.-J. Güntherodt, F. Levy, G. Wirth, J. Wiesner: Vortex pinning in ion-irrediated NbSe2 studied by scanning tunneling microscopy, Phys. Rev. Lett. 72 (1994) 1750–1753
R. Berthe, U. Hartmann, C. Heiden: Influence of a transport current on the Abrikosov flux lattice observed with a low-temperature scanning tunneling microscope, Ultramicroscopy 42–44 (1992) 696–698
A. Polkovnikov, S. Sachdev, M. Vojta: Impurity in a d-wave superconductor: Kondo effect and STM spectra, Phys. Rev. Lett. 86 (2001) 296–299
E. W. Hudson, K. M. Lang, V. Madhavan, S. H. Pan, S. Uchida, J. C. Davis: Interplay of magnetism and high-T c superconductivity at individual Ni impurity atoms in Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ, Nature 411 (2001) 920–924
K. M. Lang, V. Madhavan, J. E. Hoffman, E. W. Hudson, H. Eisaki, S. Uchida, J. C. Davis: Imaging the granular structure of high-Tc superconductivity in underdoped Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ, Nature 415 (2002) 412–416
I. Maggio-Aprile, C. Renner, E. Erb, E. Walker, Ø. Fischer: Direct vortex lattice imaging and tunneling spectroscopy of flux lines on YBa2Cu3O7-δ, Phys. Rev. Lett. 75 (1995) 2754–2757
C. Renner, B. Revaz, K. Kadowaki, I. Maggio-Aprile, Ø. Fischer: Observation of the low temperature pseudogap in the vortex cores of Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ, Phys. Rev. Lett. 80 (1998) 3606–3609
S. H. Pan, E. W. Hudson, A. K. Gupta, K. W. Ng, H. Eisaki, S. Uchida, J. C. Davis: STM studies of the electronic structure of vortex cores in Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ, Phys. Rev. Lett. 85 (2000) 1536–1539
D. P. Arovas, A. J. Berlinsky, C. Kallin, S. C. Zhang: Superconducting vortex with antiferromagnetic core, Phys. Rev. Lett. 79 (1997) 2871–2874
J. E. Hoffmann, E. W. Hudson, K. M. Lang, V. Madhavan, H. Eisaki, S. Uchida, J. C. Davis: A four unit cell periodic pattern of quasi-particle states surrounding vortex cores in Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8+δ, Science 295 (2002) 466–469
M. Fäth, S. Freisem, A. A. Menovsky, Y. Tomioka, J. Aaarts, J. A. Mydosh: Spatially inhomogeneous metal–insulator transition in doped manganites, Science 285 (1999) 1540–1542
C. Renner, G. Aeppli, B. G. Kim, Y. A. Soh, S. W. Cheong: Atomic-scale images of charge ordering in a mixed-valence manganite, Nature 416 (2000) 518–521
M. Bode, M. Getzlaff, R. Wiesendanger: Spin-polarized vacuum tunneling into the exchange-split surface state of Gd(0001), Phys. Rev. Lett. 81 (1998) 4256–4259
A. Kubetzka, M. Bode, O. Pietzsch, R. Wiesendanger: Spin-polarized scanning tunneling microscopy with antiferromagnetic probe tips, Phys. Rev. Lett. 88 (2002) 057201, 1–4
O. Pietzsch, A. Kubetzka, M. Bode, R. Wiesendanger: Observation of magnetic hysteresis at the nanometer scale by spin-polarized scanning tunneling spectroscopy, Science 292 (2001) 2053–2056
S. Heinze, M. Bode, A. Kubetzka, O. Pietzsch, X. Xie, S. Blügel, R. Wiesendanger: Real-space imaging of two-dimensional antiferromagnetism on the atomic scale, Science 288 (2000) 1805–1808
A. Wachowiak, J. Wiebe, M. Bode, O. Pietzsch, M. Morgenstern, R. Wiesendanger: Internal spin-structure of magnetic vortex cores observed by spin-polarized scanning tunneling microscopy, Science 298 (2002) 577–580
M. D. Kirk, T. R. Albrecht, C. F. Quate: Low-temperature atomic force microscopy, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 59 (1988) 833–835
D. Pelekhov, J. Becker, J. G. Nunes: Atomic force microscope for operation in high magnetic fields at milliKelvin temperatures, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 70 (1999) 114–120
J. Mou, Y. Jie, Z. Shao: An optical detection low temperature atomic force microscope at ambient pressure for biological research, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 64 (1993) 1483–1488
H. J. Mamin, D. Rugar: Sub-attoNewton force detection at milliKelvin temperatures, Appl. Phys. Lett. 79 (2001) 3358–3360
A. Schwarz, W. Allers, U. D. Schwarz, R. Wiesendanger: Dynamic mode scanning force microscopy of n-InAs(110)-(1×1) at low temperatures, Phys. Rev. B 61 (2000) 2837–2845
W. Allers, S. Langkat, R. Wiesendanger: Dynamic low-temperature scanning force microscopy on nickel oxide(001), Appl. Phys. A 72 (2001) S27–S30
F. J. Giessibl: Atomic resolution of the silicon(111)-(7×7) surface by atomic force microscopy, Science 267 (1995) 68–71
M. A. Lantz, H. J. Hug, P. J. A. van Schendel, R. Hoffmann, S. Martin, A. Baratoff, A. Abdurixit, H.-J. Güntherodt: Low temperature scanning force microscopy of the Si(111)-(7×7) surface, Phys. Rev. Lett. 84 (2000) 2642–2465
K. Suzuki, H. Iwatsuki, S. Kitamura, C. B. Mooney: Development of low temperature ultrahigh vacuum force microscope/scanning tunneling microscope, Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 39 (2000) 3750–3752
N. Suehira, Y. Sugawara, S. Morita: Artifact and fact of Si(111)-(7×7) surface images observed with a low temperature noncontact atomic force microscope (LT-NC-AFM), Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 40 (2001) 292–294
R. Peréz, M. C. Payne, I. Štich, K. Terakura: Role of covalent tip-surface interactions in noncontact atomic force microscopy on reactive surfaces, Phys. Rev. Lett. 78 (1997) 678–681
S. H. Ke, T. Uda, R. Pérez, I. Štich, K. Terakura: First principles investigation of tip-surface interaction on GaAs(110): Implication for atomic force and tunneling microscopies, Phys. Rev. B 60 (1999) 11631–11638
J. Tobik, I. Štich, R. Peréz, K. Terakura: Simulation of tip-surface interactions in atomic force microscopy of an InP(110) surface with a Si tip, Phys. Rev. B 60 (1999) 11639–11644
A. Schwarz, W. Allers, U. D. Schwarz, R. Wiesendanger: Simultaneous imaging of the In and As sublattice on InAs(110)-(1×1) with dynamic scanning force microscopy, Appl. Surf. Sci. 140 (1999) 293–297
G. Schwarz, A. Kley, J. Neugebauer, M. Scheffler: Electronic and structural properties of vacancies on and below the GaP(110) surface, Phys. Rev. B 58 (1998) 1392–1499
H. Hölscher, W. Allers, U. D. Schwarz, A. Schwarz, R. Wiesendanger: Interpretation of `true atomic resolution' images of graphite (0001) in noncontact atomic force microscopy, Phys. Rev. B 62 (2000) 6967–6970
H. Hölscher, W. Allers, U. D. Schwarz, A. Schwarz, R. Wiesendanger: Simulation of NC-AFM images of xenon(111), Appl. Phys. A 72 (2001) S35–S38
H. Hölscher, W. Allers, U. D. Schwarz, A. Schwarz, R. Wiesendanger: Determination of tip-sample interaction potentials by dynamic force spectroscopy, Phys. Rev. Lett. 83 (1999) 4780–4783
H. Hölscher, U. D. Schwarz, R. Wiesendanger: Calculation of the frequency shift in dynamic force microscopy, Appl. Surf. Sci. 140 (1999) 344–351
B. Gotsman, B. Anczykowski, C. Seidel, H. Fuchs: Determination of tip-sample interaction forces from measured dynamic force spectroscopy curves, Appl. Surf. Sci. 140 (1999) 314–319
U. Dürig: Extracting interaction forces and complementary observables in dynamic probe microscopy, Appl. Phys. Lett. 76 (2000) 1203–1205
M. A. Lantz, H. J. Hug, R. Hoffmann, P. J. A. van Schendel, P. Kappenberger, S. Martin, A. Baratoff, H.-J. Güntherodt: Quantitative measurement of short-range chemical bonding forces, Science 291 (2001) 2580–2583
S. M. Langkat, H. Hölscher, A. Schwarz, R. Wiesendanger: Determination of site specific forces between an iron coated tip and the NiO(001) surface by force field spectroscopy, Surf. Sci. (2002) in press
H. Hölscher, S. M. Langkat, A. Schwarz, R. Wiesendanger: Measurement of three-dimensional force fields with atomic resolution using dynamic force spectroscopy, Appl. Phys. Lett. (2002) in press
B. C. Stipe, H. J. Mamin, T. D. Stowe, T. W. Kenny, D. Rugar: Noncontact friction and force fluctuations between closely spaced bodies, Phys. Rev. Lett. 87 (2001)
C. Sommerhalter, T. W. Matthes, T. Glatzel, A. Jäger-Waldau, M. C. Lux-Steiner: High-sensitivity quantitative Kelvin probe microscopy by noncontact ultra-high-vacuum atomic force microscopy, Appl. Phys. Lett. 75 (1999) 286–288
A. Schwarz, W. Allers, U. D. Schwarz, R. Wiesendanger: Dynamic mode scanning force microscopy of n-InAs(110)-(1×1) at low temperatures, Phys. Rev. B 62 (2000) 13617–13622
K. L. McCormick, M. T. Woodside, M. Huang, M. Wu, P. L. McEuen, C. Duruoz, J. S. Harris: Scanned potential microscopy of edge and bulk currents in the quantum Hall regime, Phys. Rev. B 59 (1999) 4656–4657
P. Weitz, E. Ahlswede, J. Weis, K. v. Klitzing, K. Eberl: Hall-potential investigations under quantum Hall conditions using scanning force microscopy, Physica E 6 (2000) 247–250
E. Ahlswede, P. Weitz, J. Weis, K. v. Klitzing, K. Eberl: Hall potential profiles in the quantum Hall regime measured by a scanning force microscope, Physica B 298 (2001) 562–566
M. T. Woodside, C. Vale, P. L. McEuen, C. Kadow, K. D. Maranowski, A. C. Gossard: Imaging interedge-state scattering centers in the quantum Hall regime, Phys. Rev. B 64 (2001) 041310-1–041310-4
K. Moloni, B. M. Moskowitz, E. D. Dahlberg: Domain structures in single crystal magnetite below the Verwey transition as observed with a low-temperature magnetic force microscope, Geophys. Res. Lett. 23 (1996) 2851–2854
Q. Lu, C. C. Chen, A. de Lozanne: Observation of magnetic domain behavior in colossal magnetoresistive materials with a magnetic force microscope, Science 276 (1997) 2006–2008
G. Xiao, J. H. Ross, A. Parasiris, K. D. D. Rathnayaka, D. G. Naugle: Low-temperature MFM studies of CMR manganites, Physica C 341–348 (2000) 769–770
M. Liebmann, U. Kaiser, A. Schwarz, R. Wiesendanger, U. H. Pi, T. W. Noh, Z. G. Khim, D. W. Kim: Domain nucleation and growth of La07Ca0.3MnO3-δ/LaAlO3 films studied by low temperature MFM, J. Appl. Phys. 93 (2003) 8319–8321
A. Moser, H. J. Hug, I. Parashikov, B. Stiefel, O. Fritz, H. Thomas, A. Baratoff, H. J. Güntherodt, P. Chaudhari: Observation of single vortices condensed into a vortex-glass phase by magnetic force microscopy, Phys. Rev. Lett. 74 (1995) 1847–1850
C. W. Yuan, Z. Zheng, A. L. de Lozanne, M. Tortonese, D. A. Rudman, J. N. Eckstein: Vortex images in thin films of YBa2Cu3O7-x and Bi2Sr2Ca1Cu2O8-x obtained by low-temperature magnetic force microscopy, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B 14 (1996) 1210–1213
A. Volodin, K. Temst, C. van Haesendonck, Y. Bruynseraede: Observation of the Abrikosov vortex lattice in NbSe2 with magnetic force microscopy, Appl. Phys. Lett. 73 (1998) 1134–1136
A. Moser, H. J. Hug, B. Stiefel, H. J. Güntherodt: Low temperature magnetic force microscopy on YBa2Cu3O7-δ thin films, J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 190 (1998) 114–123
A. Volodin, K. Temst, C. van Haesendonck, Y. Bruynseraede: Imaging of vortices in conventional superconductors by magnetic force microscopy images, Physica C 332 (2000) 156–159
M. Roseman, P. Grütter: Estimating the magnetic penetration depth using constant-height magnetic force microscopy images of vortices, New J. Phys. 3 (2001) 24.1–24.8
A. Volodin, K. Temst, C. van Haesendonck, Y. Bruynseraede, M. I. Montero, I. K. Schuller: Magnetic force microscopy of vortices in thin niobium films: Correlation between the vortex distribution and the thickness-dependent film morphology, Europhys. Lett. 58 (2002) 582–588
U. H. Pi, T. W. Noh, Z. G. Khim, U. Kaiser, M. Liebmann, A. Schwarz, R. Wiesendanger: Vortex dynamics in Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8 single crystal with low density columnar defects studied by magnetic force microscopy, J. Low Temp. Phys. 131 (2003) 993–1002
M. Roseman, P. Grütter, A. Badia, V. Metlushko: Flux lattice imaging of a patterned niobium thin film, J. Appl. Phys. 89 (2001) 6787–6789
K. Nakamura, H. Hasegawa, T. Oguchi, K. Sueoka, K. Hayakawa, K. Mukasa: First-principles calculation of the exchange interaction and the exchange force between magnetic Fe films, Phys. Rev. B 56 (1997) 3218–3221
A. S. Foster, A. L. Shluger: Spin-contrast in non-contact AFM on oxide surfaces: Theoretical modeling of NiO(001) surface, Surf. Sci. 490 (2001) 211–219
H. Hoisoi, M. Kimura, K. Hayakawa, K. Sueoka, K. Mukasa: Non-contact atomic force microscopy of an antiferromagnetic NiO(100) surface using a ferromagnetic tip, Appl. Phys. A 72 (2001) S23–S26
J. A. Sidles, J. L. Garbini, G. P. Drobny: The theory of oscillator-coupled magnetic resonance with potential applications to molecular imaging, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 63 (1992) 3881–3899
J. A. Sidles, J. L. Garbini, K. J. Bruland, D. Rugar, O. Züger, S. Hoen, C. S. Yannoni: Magnetic resonance force microscopy, Rev. Mod. Phys. 67 (1995) 249–265
D. Rugar, C. S. Yannoni, J. A. Sidles: Mechanical detection of magnetic resonance, Nature 360 (1992) 563–566
K. Wago, D. Botkin, O. Züger, R. Kendrick, C. S. Yannoni, D. Rugar: Force-detected electron spin resonance: Adiabatic inversion, nutation and spin echo, Phys. Rev. B 57 (1998) 1108–1114
D. Rugar, O. Züger, S. Hoen, C. S. Yannoni, H. M. Vieth, R. D. Kendrick: Force detection of nuclear magnetic resonance, Science 264 (1994) 1560–1563
Z. Zhang, P. C. Hammel, P. E. Wigen: Observation of ferromagnetic resonance in a microscopic sample using magnetic resonance force microscopy, Appl. Phys. Lett. 68 (1996) 2005–2007
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2004 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this entry
Cite this entry
Morgenstern, M., Schwarz, A., Schwarz, U.D. (2004). Low Temperature Scanning Probe Microscopy. In: Bhushan, B. (eds) Springer Handbook of Nanotechnology. Springer Handbooks. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-29838-X_14
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-29838-X_14
Publisher Name: Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
Print ISBN: 978-3-540-01218-4
Online ISBN: 978-3-540-29838-0
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive