Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Photoresponsive Polymers II pp 1–86Cite as

Polymer Solar Cells

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: Advances in Polymer Science ((POLYMER,volume 214))

Abstract

Polymer solar cells, a highly innovative research area for the last decade until today, are currentlymaturing with respect to understanding of their fundamental processes of operation. The increasing interestof the scientific community is well reflected by the—every year—dynamically rising number ofpublications. This chapter presents an overview of the developments in organic photovoltaics employingconjugated polymers as active materials in the photoconversion process. Here the focus is on differentiatingbetween the various material systems applied today: polymer–fullerene, polymer–polymer, polymer–nanoparticlehybrids, and polymer–carbon nanotube combinations are reviewed comprehensively.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Nalwa HS (ed) (1997) Handbook of organic conductive molecules and polymers, vols 1–4. Wiley, Chichester

    Google Scholar 

  2. Hadziioannou G, van Hutten PF (eds) (2000) Semiconducting polymers, vol 1. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim

    Google Scholar 

  3. Skotheim TA, Reynolds JR (eds) (2006) Handbook of conducting polymers, vols 1–2. CRC, Boca Raton

    Google Scholar 

  4. McGehee MD, Miller EK, Moses D, Heeger AJ (1999) In: Bernier P, Lefrant S, Bidan G (eds) Advances in synthetic metals: twenty years of progress in science and technology. Elsevier, Lausanne, p 98

    Google Scholar 

  5. Dimitrakopoulos CD, Mascaro DJ (2001) Organic thin-film transistors: a review of recent advances. IBM J Res Dev 45:11

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Hoppe H, Arnold N, Meissner D, Sariciftci NS (2003) Modeling the optical absorption within conjugated polymer/fullerene-based bulk-heterojunction organic solar cells. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 80:105

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Hoppe H, Sariciftci NS (2004) Organic solar cells: an overview. J Mater Res 19:1924

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Montanari I, Nogueira AF, Nelson J, Durrant JR, Winder C, Loi MA, Sariciftci NS, Brabec CJ (2001) Transient optical studies of charge recombination dynamics in a polymer/fullerene composite at room temperature. Appl Phys Lett 81:3001

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Nogueira AF, Montari I, Nelson J, Durrant JR, Winder C, Sariciftci NS, Brabec C (2003) Charge recombination in conjugated polymer/fullerene blended films studied by transient absorption spectroscopy. J Phys Chem B 107:1567

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Nelson J (2003) Diffusion-limited recombination in polymer–fullerene blends and its influence on photocurrent collection. Phys Rev B 67:155209

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Sirringhaus H, Brown PJ, Friend RH, Nielsen MM, Bechgaard K, Langeveld-Voss BMW, Spiering AJH, Janssen RAJ, Meijer EW, Herwig P, de Leeuw DM (1999) Two-dimensional charge transport in self-organized, high-mobility conjugated polymers. Nature 401:685

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Singh Th B, Marjanovic N, Matt GJ, Günes S, Sariciftci NS, Montaigne Ramil A, Andreev A, Sitter H, Schwödiauer R, Bauer S (2004) High-mobility n-channel organic field-effect transistors based on epitaxially grown C60 films. Org Electron 6:105

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Brabec CJ, Sariciftci NS, Hummelen JC (2001) Plastic solar cells. Adv Funct Mater 11:15

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Brabec CJ, Dyakonov V, Parisi J, Sariciftci NS (eds) (2003) Organic photovoltaics: concepts and realization, vol 60. Springer, Berlin

    Google Scholar 

  15. Brabec CJ (2004) Organic photovoltaics: technology and market. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 83:273

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Mozer AJ, Sariciftci NS (2006) In: Skotheim TA, Reynolds JR (eds) Conjugated polymers: processing and applications, vol 2. CRC, Boca Raton, p 101

    Google Scholar 

  17. Science Citation Index, polymer solar cell(s) (2007) Thompson Scientific, Web of Science

    Google Scholar 

  18. Ma W, Yang C, Gong X, Lee K, Heeger AJ (2005) Thermally stable, efficient polymer solar cells with nanoscale control of the interpenetrating network morphology. Adv Funct Mater 15:1617

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Reyes-Reyes M, Kim K, Carroll DL (2005) High-efficiency photovoltaic devices based on annealed poly(3-hexylthiophene) and 1-(3-methoxycarbonyl)-propyl-1-phenyl-(6,6)C61 blends. Appl Phys Lett 87:083506

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Reyes-Reyes M, Kim K, Dewald J, Lopez R-S, Avadhanula A, Curran S, Carroll DL (2005) Meso-structure formation for enhanced organic photovoltaic cells. Org Lett 7:5749

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Li G, Shrotriya V, Huang J, Yao Y, Moriarty T, Emery K, Yang Y (2005) High-efficiency solution processable polymer photovoltaic cells by self-organization of polymer blends. Nat Mater 4:864

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Karg S, Riess W, Dyakonov V, Schwoerer M (1993) Electrical and optical characterization of poly(phenylene-vinylene) light emitting diodes. Synth Met 54:427

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Yu G, Zhang C, Heeger AJ (1994) Dual-function semiconducting polymer devices: light-emitting and photodetecting diodes. Appl Phys Lett 64:1540

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Yu G, Pakbaz K, Heeger AJ (1994) Semiconducting polymer diodes: large size, low cost photodetectors with excellent visible–ultraviolet sensitivity. Appl Phys Lett 64:3422

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Marks RN, Halls JJM, Bradley DDC, Friend RH, Holmes AB (1994) The photovoltaic response in poly(p-phenylene vinylene) thin-film devices. J Phys Condens Matter 6:1379

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Sariciftci NS, Smilowitz L, Heeger AJ, Wudl F (1992) Photoinduced electron transfer from a conducting polymer to buckminsterfullerene. Science 258:1474

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Sariciftci NS, Braun D, Zhang C, Srdanov VI, Heeger AJ, Stucky G, Wudl F (1993) Semiconducting polymer–buckminsterfullerene heterojunctions: diodes, photodiodes, and photovoltaic cells. Appl Phys Lett 62:585

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Yu G, Heeger AJ (1995) Charge separation and photovoltaic conversion in polymer composites with internal donor/acceptor heterojunctions. J Appl Phys 78:4510

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Yu G, Gao J, Hummelen JC, Wudl F, Heeger AJ (1995) Polymer photovoltaic cells: enhanced efficiencies via a network of internal donor–acceptor heterojunctions. Science 270:1789

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Halls JJM, Walsh CA, Greenham NC, Marseglia EA, Friend RH, Moratti SC, Holmes AB (1995) Efficient photodiodes from interpenetrating polymer networks. Nature 376:498

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Tada K, Hosada K, Hirohata M, Hidayat R, Kawai T, Onoda M, Teraguchi M, Masuda T, Zakhidov AA, Yoshino K (1997) Donor polymer (PAT6)–acceptor polymer (CNPPV) fractal network photocells. Synth Met 85:1305

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Granström M, Petritsch K, Arias AC, Lux A, Andersson MR, Friend RH (1998) Laminated fabrication of polymeric photovoltaic diodes. Nature 395:257

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Jenekhe SA, Yi S (2000) Efficient photovoltaic cells from semiconducting polymer heterojunctions. Appl Phys Lett 77:2635

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Shaheen SE, Brabec CJ, Sariciftci NS, Padinger F, Fromherz T, Hummelen JC (2001) 25% efficient organic plastic solar cells. Appl Phys Lett 78:841

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. McNeill CR, Abrusci A, Zaumseil J, Wilson R, McKiernan MJ, Burroughes JH, Halls JJM, Greenham NC, Friend RH (2007) Dual electron donor/electron acceptor character of a conjugated polymer in efficient photovoltaic diodes. Appl Phys Lett 90:193506

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Sun B, Greenham NC (2006) Improved efficiency of photovoltaics based on CdSe nanorods and poly(3-hexylthiophene) nanofibers. Phys Chem Chem Phys 8:3557

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Kymakis E, Koudoumas E, Franghiadakis I, Amaratunga GAJ (2006) Post-fabrication annealing effects in polymer–nanotube photovoltaic cells. J Phys D Appl Phys 39:1058

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. de Boer B, Stalmach U, van Hutten PF, Melzer C, Krasnikov VV, Hadziioannou G (2001) Supramolecular self-assembly and opto-electronic properties of semiconducting block copolymers. Polymer 42:9097

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Gratt JA, Cohen RE (2004) The role of ordered block copolymer morphology in the performance of organic/inorganic photovoltaic devices. J Appl Polym Sci 91:3362–3368

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Sun S, Fan Z, Wang Y, Haliburton J (2005) Organic solar cell optimizations. J Mater Sci 40:1429

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Heiser T, Adamopoulos G, Brinkmann M, Giovanella U, Ould-Saad S, Brochon C, van de Wetering K, Hadziioannou G (2006) Nanostructure of self-assembled rod–coil block copolymer films for photovoltaic application. Thin Solid Films 511–512:219

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Lindner SM, Hüttner S, Chiche A, Thelakkat M, Krausch G (2006) Charge separation at self-assembled nanostructured bulk interface in block copolymers. Angew Chem Int Ed 45:3364–3368

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Sommer M, Lindner SM, Thelakkat M (2007) Microphase-Separated Donor–Acceptor Diblock Copolymers: Influence of HOMO Energy Levels and Morphology on Polymer Solar Cells. Adv Funct Mater 17:1493–1500

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Halls JJM, Pichler K, Friend RH, Moratti SC, Holmes AB (1996) Exciton diffusion and dissociation in a poly(p-phenylenevinylene)/C60 heterojunction photovoltaic cell. Appl Phys Lett 68:3120

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Savanije TJ, Warman JM, Goossens A (1998) Visible light sensitisation of titanium dioxide using a phenylene vinylene polymer. Chem Phys Lett 287:148

    Article  Google Scholar 

  46. Pettersson LAA, Roman LS, Inganäs O (1999) Modeling photocurrent action spectra of photovoltaic devices based on organic thin films. J Appl Phys 86:487

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Haugeneder A, Neges M, Kallinger C, Spirkl W, Lemmer U, Feldmann J, Scherf U, Harth E, Gügel A, Müllen K (1999) Exciton diffusion and dissociation in conjugated polymer/fullerene blends and heterostructures. Phys Rev B 59:15346

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Stoessel M, Wittmann G, Staudigel J, Steuber F, Blässing J, Roth W, Klausmann H, Rogler W, Simmerer J, Winnacker A, Inbasekaran M, Woo EP (2000) Cathode-induced luminescence quenching in polyfluorenes. J Appl Phys 87:4467

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Pope M, Swenberg CE (1999) Electronic processes in organic crystals and polymers, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  50. Sariciftci NS (ed) (1997) Primary photoexcitations in conjugated polymers: molecular exciton versus semiconductor band model. World Scientific, Singapore

    Google Scholar 

  51. Chandross M, Mazumdar S, Jeglinski S, Wei X, Vardeny ZV, Kwock EW, Miller TM (1994) Excitons in poly(para-phenylenevinylene). Phys Rev B 50:14702

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Campbell IH, Hagler TW, Smith DL, Ferraris JP (1996) Direct measurement of conjugated polymer electronic excitation energies using metal/polymer/metal structures. Phys Rev Lett 76:1900

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Knupfer M (2003) Exciton binding energies in organic semiconductors. Appl Phys A 77:623

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Brabec CJ, Zerza G, Cerullo G, Silvestri SD, Luzzati S, Hummelen JC, Sariciftci S (2001) Tracing photoinduced electron transfer process in conjugated polymer/fullerene bulk heterojunctions in real time. Chem Phys Lett 340:232

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Hoppe H, Niggemann M, Winder C, Kraut J, Hiesgen R, Hinsch A, Meissner D, Sariciftci NS (2004) Nanoscale morphology of conjugated polymer/fullerene based bulk-heterojunction solar cells. Adv Funct Mater 14:1005

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Morteani AC, Dhoot AS, Kim JS, Silva C, Greenham NC, Friend RH, Murphy C, Moons E, Ciná S, Burroughes JH (2003) Barrier-free electron–hole capture in polymer blend heterojunction light-emitting diodes. Adv Mater 15:1708

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Morteani AC, Sreearunothai P, Herz LM, Phillips RT, Friend RH, Silva C (2004) Exciton regeneration at polymeric semiconductor heterojunctions. Phys Rev Lett 92:247240

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Mihailetchi VD, Koster LJA, Hummelen JC, Blom PWM (2004) Photocurrent generation in polymer–fullerene bulk heterojunctions. Phys Rev Lett 93:216601

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Koster LJA, Smiths ECP, Mihailetchi VD, Blom PWM (2005) Device model for the operation of polymer/fullerene bulk heterojunction solar cells. Phys Rev B 72:085205

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Hoppe H, Glatzel T, Niggemann M, Hinsch A, Lux-Steiner MC, Sariciftci NS (2005) Kelvin probe force microscopy study on conjugated polymer/fullerene bulk heterojunction organic solar cells. Nano Lett 5:269

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Hoppe H, Glatzel T, Niggemann M, Schwinger W, Schaeffler F, Hinsch A, Lux-Steiner MC, Sariciftci NS (2006) Efficiency limiting morphological factors of MDMO-PPV:PCBM plastic solar cells. Thin Solid Films 511–512:587

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Hoppe H, Sariciftci NS (2006) Morphology of polymer/fullerene bulk heterojunction solar cells. J Mater Chem 16:45

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Sze SM (1981) Physics of semiconductor devices. Wiley, New York

    Google Scholar 

  64. Parker ID (1994) Carrier tunneling and device characteristics in polymer light-emitting diodes. J Appl Phys 75:1656

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Tang CW (1986) Two-layer organic photovoltaic cell. Appl Phys Lett 48:183

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Moons E (2002) Conjugated polymer blends: linking film morphology to performance of light emitting diodes and photodiodes. J Phys Condens Matter 14:12235–12260

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Kim J-S, Ho PKH, Murphy CE, Friend RH (2004) Phase separation in polyfluorene-based conjugated polymer blends: lateral and vertical analysis of blend spin-cast thin films. Macromolecules 37:2861

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Yang X, van Duren JKJ, Janssen RAJ, Michels MAJ, Loos J (2004) Morphology and thermal stability of the active layer in poly(p-phenylenevinylene)/methanofullerene plastic photovoltaic devices. Macromolecules 37:2151

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Coakley KM, Liu Y, McGehee MD, Frindell K, Stucky GD (2003) Infiltrating semiconducting polymers into self-assembled mesoporous titania films for photovoltaic applications. Adv Funct Mater 13:301

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Coakley KM, McGehee MD (2003) Photovoltaic cells made from conjugated polymers infiltrated into mesoporous titania. Appl Phys Lett 83:3380

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Coakley KM, McGehee MD (2004) Conjugated polymer photovoltaic cells. Chem Mater 16:4533

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Campbell IH, Rubin S, Zawodzinski TA, Kress JD, Martin RL, Smith DL, Barashkov NN, Ferraris JP (1996) Controlling Schottky energy barriers in organic electronic devices using self-assembled monolayers. Phys Rev B 54:14321

    Article  Google Scholar 

  73. Campbell IH, Kress JD, Martin RL, Smith DL, Barashkov NN, Ferraris JP (1997) Controlling charge injection in organic electronic devices using self-assembled monolayers. Appl Phys Lett 71:3528

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Ganzorig C, Matsuda Y, Fujihira M (2002) Chemical modification of indium-tin-oxide electrodes by surface molecular design. Presented at the Materials Research Society meeting, Warrendale. MRS Proc 708:BB3221

    Google Scholar 

  75. Lee J, Jung B-J, Lee J-I, Chu HY, Do L-M, Shim H-K (2002) Modification of an ITO anode with a hole-transporting SAM for improved OLED device characteristics. J Mater Chem 12:3494

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Scott JC, Carter SA, Karg S, Angelopoulos M (1997) Polymeric anodes for organic light-emitting diodes. Synth Met 85:1197

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Cao Y, Yu G, Zhang C, Menon R, Heeger AJ (1997) Polymer light-emitting diodes with polyethylene dioxythiophene–polystyrene sulfonate as the transparent anode. Synth Met 87:171

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Kugler T, Salaneck WR, Rost H, Holmes AB (1999) Polymer band alignment at the interface with indium tin oxide: consequences for light emitting devices. Chem Phys Lett 310:391

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Greczynski G, Kugler T, Salaneck WR (2000) Energy level alignment in organic-based three-layer structures studied by photoelectron spectroscopy. J Appl Phys 88:7187

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Hung LS, Tang CW, Mason MG (1997) Enhanced electron injection in organic electroluminescence devices using an Al/LiF electrode. Appl Phys Lett 70:152

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Jabbour GE, Kawabe Y, Shaheen SE, Wang JF, Morrell MM, Kippelen B, Peyghambarian N (1997) Highly efficient and bright organic electroluminescent devices with an aluminum cathode. Appl Phys Lett 71:1762

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Shaheen SE, Jabbour GE, Morrell MM, Kawabe Y, Kippelen B, Peyghambarian N, Nabor M-F, Schlaf R, Mash EA, Armstrong NR (1998) Bright blue organic light-emitting diode with improved color purity using a LiF/Al cathode. J Appl Phys 84:2324

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Jabbour GE, Kippelen B, Armstrong NR, Peyghambarian N (1998) Aluminum based cathode structure of enhanced electron injection in electroluminescent organic devices. Appl Phys Lett 73:1185

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Koch N, Pogantsch A, List EJW, Leising G, Blyth RIR, Ramsey MG, Netzer FP (1999) Low-onset organic blue light emitting devices obtained by better interface control. Appl Phys Lett 74:2909

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Cao Y, Yu G, Parker ID, Heeger AJ (2000) Ultrathin layer alkaline earth metals as stable electron-injection electrodes for polymer light emitting diodes. J Appl Phys 88:3618

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Heil H, Steiger J, Karg S, Gastel M, Ortner H, von Seggern H, Stößel M (2001) Mechanisms of injection enhancements in organic light-emitting diodes through an Al/LiF electrode. J Appl Phys 89:420

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Li F, Feng J, Cheng G, Liu S (2002) Electron injection and electroluminescence investigation of organic light-emitting devices based on a Sn/Al cathode. Synth Met 126:347

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Malliaras GG, Scott JC (1998) The roles of injection and mobility in organic light emitting diodes. J Appl Phys 83:5399

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Roman LS, Mammo W, Petterson LAA, Andersson MR, Inganäs O (1998) High quantum efficiency polythiophene/C60 photodiodes. Adv Mater 10:774

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Shaheen SE, Brabec CJ, Sariciftci NS, Jabbour GE (2001) Effects of inserting highly polar salts between the cathode and active layer of bulk heterojunction photovoltaic devices. Presented at the Materials Research Society meeting, San Francisco. MRS Proc 665:C5511

    Google Scholar 

  91. Brabec CJ, Shaheen SE, Winder C, Sariciftci NS, Denk P (2002) Effect of LiF/metal electrodes on the performance of plastic solar cells. Appl Phys Lett 80:1288

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Brown TM, Millard IS, Lacey DJ, Burroughes JH, Friend RH, Cacialli F (2001) The influence of LiF thickness on the built-in potential of blue polymer light-emitting diodes with LiF/Al cathodes. Synth Met 124:15

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. van Gennip WJH, van Duren JKJ, Thüne PC, Janssen RAJ, Niemantsverdriet JW (2002) The interfaces of poly(p-phenylene vinylene) and fullerene derivatives with Al, LiF, and Al/LiF studied by secondary ion mass spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy: formation of AI/F3 disproved. J Chem Phys 117:5031

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Deng XY, Tong SW, Hung LS, Mo YQ, Cao Y (2003) Role of ultrathin Alq3 and LiF layers in conjugated polymer light-emitting diodes. Appl Phys Lett 82:3104

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Yokoyama T, Yoshimura D, Ito E, Ishii H, Ouchi Y, Seki K (2003) Energy level alignment at Alq3/LiF/Al interfaces studied by electron spectroscopies: island growth of LiF and size-dependence of the electronic structures. Jpn J Appl Phys 42:3666

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Liu J, Duggal AR, Shiang JJ, Heller CM (2004) Efficient bottom cathodes for organic light-emitting devices. Appl Phys Lett 85:837

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Jönsson SKM, Carlegrim E, Zhang F, Salaneck WR, Fahlman M (2005) Photoelectron spectroscopy of the contact between the cathode and the active layers in plastic solar cells: the role of LiF. Jpn J Appl Phys 44:3695

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Gregg BA, Hanna MC (2003) Comparing organic to inorganic photovoltaic cells: theory, experiment, and simulation. J Appl Phys 93:3605

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Kim H, Jin S-H, Suh H, Lee K (2004) Origin of the open circuit voltage in conjugated polymer–fullerene photovoltaic cells. In: Kafafi ZH, Lane PA (eds) Organic photovoltaics IV. SPIE Proc 5215:111

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Gadisa A, Svensson M, Andersson MR, Inganäs O (2004) Correlation between oxidation potential and open-circuit voltage of composite solar cells based on blends of polythiophenes/fullerene derivative. Appl Phys Lett 84:1609

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Hoppe H, Egbe DAM, Mühlbacher D, Sariciftci NS (2004) Photovoltaic action of conjugated polymer/fullerene bulk heterojunction solar cells using novel PPE-PPV copolymers. J Mater Chem 14:3461

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Scharber MC, Mühlbacher D, Koppe M, Denk P, Waldauf C, Heeger AJ, Brabec CJ (2006) Design rules for donors in bulk-heterojunction solar cells—towards 10% energy-conversion efficiency. Adv Mater 18:789

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  103. Brabec CJ, Cravino A, Meissner D, Sariciftci NS, Fromherz T, Rispens MT, Sanchez L, Hummelen JC (2001) Origin of the open circuit voltage of plastic solar cells. Adv Funct Mater 11:374

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Kooistra FB, Knol J, Kastenberg F, Popescu LM, Verhees WJH, Kroon JM, Hummelen JC (2007) Increasing the open circuit voltage of bulk-heterojunction solar cells by raising the LUMO level of the acceptor. Org Lett 9:551

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Mihailetchi VD, Blom PWM, Hummelen JC, Rispens MT (2003) Cathode dependence of the open-circuit voltage of polymer: fullerene bulk heterojunction solar cells. J Appl Phys 94:6849

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Heller CM, Campbell IH, Smith DL, Barashkov NN, Ferraris JP (1997) Chemical potential pinning due to equilibrium electron transfer at metal/C60-doped polymer interfaces. J Appl Phys 81:3227

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. Hirose Y, Kahn A, Aristov V, Soukiassian P, Bulovic V, Forrest SR (1996) Chemistry and electronic properties of metal–organic semiconductor interfaces: Al, Ti, In, Sn, Ag, and Au on PTCDA. Phys Rev B 54:13748

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  108. Ishii H, Sugiyama K, Ito E, Seki K (1999) Energy level alignment and interfacial electronic structures at organic/metal and organic/organic interfaces. Adv Mater 11:605

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Yan L, Gao Y (2002) Interfaces in organic semiconductor devices. Thin Solid Films 417:101

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Koch N, Kahn A, Ghijsen J, Pireaux J-J, Schwartz J, Johnson RL, Elschner A (2003) Conjugated organic molecules on metal versus polymer electrodes: demonstration of a key energy level alignment mechanism. Appl Phys Lett 82:70

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  111. Cahen D, Kahn A (2003) Electron energetics at surfaces and interfaces: concepts and experiments. Adv Mater 15:271

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  112. Veenstra SC, Jonkman HT (2003) Energy-level alignment at metal–organic and organic–organic interfaces. J Polym Sci Polym Phys 41:2549

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Veenstra SC, Heeres A, Hadziioannou G, Sawatzky GA, Jonkman HT (2002) On interface dipole layers between C60 and Ag or Au. Appl Phys A 75:661

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. Melzer C, Krasnikov VV, Hadziioannou G (2003) Organic donor/acceptor photovoltaics: the role of C60/metal interfaces. Appl Phys Lett 82:3101

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. van Duren JKJ, Loos J, Morrissey F, Leewis CM, Kivits KPH, van IJzendoorn LJ, Rispens MT, Hummelen JC, Janssen RAJ (2002) In-situ compositional and structural analysis of plastic solar cells. Adv Funct Mater 12:665

    Article  Google Scholar 

  116. Bulle-Lieuwma CWT, van Gennip WJH, van Duren JKJ, Jonkheijm P, Janssen RAJ, Niemantsverdriet JW (2003) Characterization of polymer solar cells by TOF-SIMS depth profiling. Appl Surf Sci 203–204:547

    Article  Google Scholar 

  117. Gao J, Hide F, Wang H (1997) Efficient photodetectors and photovoltaic cells from composites of fullerenes and conjugated polymers: photoinduced electron transfer. Synth Met 84:979

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  118. Liu J, Shi Y, Yang Y (2001) Solvation-induced morphology effects on the performance of polymer-based photovoltaic devices. Adv Funct Mater 11:420

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  119. Scharber MC, Schulz NA, Sariciftci NS, Brabec CJ (2003) Optical- and photocurrent-detected magnetic resonance studies on conjugated polymer/fullerene composites. Phys Rev B 67:085202

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. van Duren JKJ, Yang X, Loos J, Bulle-Lieuwma CWT, Sieval AB, Hummelen JC, Janssen RAJ (2004) Relating the morphology of poly(p-phenylene vinylene)/methanofullerene blends to solar-cell performance. Adv Funct Mater 14:425

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Riedel I, von Hauff E, Parisi J, Martin N, Giacalone F, Dyakonov V (2005) Dimethanofullerenes: new and efficient acceptors in bulk-heterojunction solar cells. Adv Funct Mater 15:1979

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Katz EA, Faiman D, Tuladhar SM, Kroon JM, Wienk MM, Fromherz T, Padinger F, Brabec CJ, Sariciftci NS (2001) Temperature dependence for the photovoltaic device parameters of polymer–fullerene solar cells under operating conditions. J Appl Phys 90:5343

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Dyakonov V (2002) The polymer–fullerene interpenetrating network: one route to a solar cell approach. Physica E 14:53

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Riedel I, Parisi J, Dyakonov V, Lutsen L, Vanderzande D, Hummelen JC (2004) Effect of temperature and illumination on the electrical characteristics of polymer–fullerene bulk-heterojunction solar cells. Adv Funct Mater 14:38

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Ramsdale CM, Barker JA, Arias AC, MacKenzie JD, Friend RH, Greenham NC (2002) The origin of the open circuit voltage in polyfluorene-based photovoltaic devices. J Appl Phys 92:4266

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Peumans P, Yakimov A, Forrest SR (2003) Small molecular weight organic thin-film photodetectors and solar cells. J Appl Phys 93:3693

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Schilinsky P, Waldauf C, Hauch J, Brabec CJ (2004) Simulation of light intensity dependent current characteristics of polymer solar cells. J Appl Phys 95:2816

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Frohne H, Shaheen SE, Brabec CJ, Müller DC, Sariciftci NS, Meerholz K (2002) Influence of the anodic work function on the performance of organic solar cells. ChemPhysChem 9:795

    Article  Google Scholar 

  129. Barker JA, Ramsdale CM, Greenham NC (2003) Modeling the current–voltage characteristics of bilayer polymer photovoltaic devices. Phys Rev B 67:075205

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Hummelen JC, Knight BW, LePeq F, Wudl F, Yao J, Wilkins CL (1995) Preparation and characterization of fulleroid and methanofullerene derivatives. J Org Chem 60:532

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Yang CY, Heeger AJ (1996) Morphology of composites of semiconducting polymers mixed with C60. Synth Met 83:85

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Drees M, Premaratne K, Graupner W, Heflin JR, Davis RM, Marciu D, Miller M (2002) Creation of a gradient polymer–fullerene interface in photovoltaic devices by thermally controlled interdiffusion. Appl Phys Lett 81:1

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Drees M, Davis RM, Heflin JR (2005) Improved morphology of polymer–fullerene photovoltaic devices with thermally induced concentration gradients. J Appl Phys 97:036103

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. Martens T, D'Haen J, Munters T, Goris L, Beelen Z, Manca J, D'Olieslaeger M, Vanderzande D, Schepper LD, Andriessen R (2002) The influence of the microstructure upon the photovoltaic performance of MDMOPPV:PCBM bulk hetero-junction organic solar cells. Presented at the Materials Research Society Spring Meeting, San Francisco. MRS Proc 725:P7111

    Google Scholar 

  135. Martens T, D'Haen J, Munters T, Beelen Z, Goris L, Manca J, D'Olieslaeger M, Vanderzande D, Schepper LD, Andriessen R (2003) Disclosure of the nanostructure of MDMO-PPV:PCBM bulk heterojunction organic solar cells by a combination of SPM and TEM. Synth Met 138:243

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Martens T, Beelen Z, D'Haen J, Munters T, Goris L, Manca J, D'Olieslaeger M, Vanderzande D, Schepper LD, Andriessen R (2003) Morphology of MDMO-PPV:PCBM bulk hetero-junction organic solar cells studied by AFM, KFM and TEM. In: Kafafi Z H, Fichou D (eds) Organic photovoltaics III. SPIE Proc 4801:40

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Hoppe H, Drees M, Schwinger W, Schäffler F, Sariciftci NS (2005) Nano-crystalline fullerene phases in polymer/fullerene bulk-heterojunction solar cells: a transmission electron microscopy study. Synth Met 152:117

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. McNeill CR, Frohne H, Holdsworth JL, Dastoor PC (2004) Direct influence of morphology on current generation in conjugated polymer:methanofullerene solar cells measured by near-field scanning photocurrent microscopy. Synth Met 147:101

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. Geens W, Shaheen SE, Brabec CJ, Poortmans J, Sariciftci NS (2000) Field-effect mobility measurements of conjugated polymer/fullerene photovoltaic blends. Presented at the electronic properties of novel materials—molecular nanostructures, 14th international winter school/Euroconference (American Institute of Physics), Kirchberg

    Google Scholar 

  140. Geens W, Shaheen SE, Wessling B, Brabec CJ, Poortmans J, Sariciftci NS (2002) Dependence of field-effect hole mobility of PPV-based polymer films on the spin-casting solvent. Org Electron 3:105

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Aernouts T, Vanlaeke P, Geens W, Poortmans J, Heremans P, Borghs S, Mertens R (2003) The influence of the donor/acceptor ratio on the performance of organic bulk heterojunction solar cells. Presented at the E-MRS spring meeting, Strasbourg

    Google Scholar 

  142. Pacios R, Nelson J, Bradley DDC, Brabec CJ (2003) Composition dependence of electron and hole transport in polyfluorene:[6,6]-phenyl C61-butyric acid methyl ester blend films. Appl Phys Lett 83:4764

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Melzer C, Koop EJ, Mihailetchi VD, Blom PWM (2004) Hole transport in poly(phenylene vinylene)/methanofullerene bulk-heterojunction solar cells. Adv Funct Mater 14:865

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Mihailetchi VD, Koster LJA, Blom PWM, Melzer C, de Boer B, van Duren JKJ, Janssen RAJ (2005) Compositional dependence of the performance of poly(p-phenylene vinylene):methanofullerene bulk-heterojunction solar cells. Adv Funct Mater 15:795

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Dennler G, Mozer AJ, Juska G, Pivrikas A, Österbacka R, Fuchsbauer A, Sariciftci NS (2006) Charge carrier mobility and lifetime versus composition of conjugated polymer/fullerene bulk-heterojunction solar cells. Org Electron 7:229

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Gadisa A, Wang X, Admassie S, Perzon E, Oswald F, Langa F, Andersson MR, Inganäs O (2006) Stoichiometry dependence of charge transport in polymer/methanofullerene and polymer/C70 derivative based solar cells. Org Electron 7:195

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Andersson LM, Inganäs O (2006) Acceptor influence on hole mobility in fullerene blends with alternating copolymers of fluorene. Appl Phys Lett 88:082103

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Mihailetchi VD, Wildeman J, Blom PWM (2005) Space-charge limited photocurrent. Phys Rev Lett 94:126602

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Bässler H (1993) Charge transport in disordered organic photoconductors. Phys Status Solidi B 175:15

    Article  Google Scholar 

  150. Dyakonov V (2004) Mechanisms controlling the efficiency of polymer solar cells. Appl Phys A 79:21

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Riedel I, Dyakonov V (2004) Influence of electronic transport properties of polymer–fullerene blends on the performance of bulk heterojunction photovoltaic devices. Phys Status Solidi A 201:1332

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. Onsager L (1934) Deviations from Ohm's law in weak electrolytes. J Chem Phys 2:599

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  153. Braun CL (1984) Electric field assisted dissociation of charge transfer states as a mechanism of photocarrier production. J Chem Phys 80:4157

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Gommans HHP, Kemerink M, Kramer JM, Janssen RAJ (2005) Field and temperature dependence of the photocurrent in polymer/fullerene bulk heterojunction solar cells. Appl Phys Lett 87:122104

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Koster LJA, Mihailetchi VD, Ramaker R, Blom PWM (2005) Light intensity dependence of open-circuit voltage of polymer:fullerene solar cells. Appl Phys Lett 86:123509

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Koster LJA, Mihailetchi VD, Xie H, Blom PWM (2005) Origin of the light intensity dependence of the short-circuit current of polymer/fullerene solar cells. Appl Phys Lett 87:203502

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Waldauf C, Schilinsky P, Hauch J, Brabec CJ (2004) Material and device concepts for organic photovoltaics: towards competitive efficiencies. Thin Solid Films 451–452:503

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Waldauf C, Scharber MC, Schilinsky P, Hauch JA, Brabec CJ (2006) Physics of organic bulk heterojunction devices for photovoltaic applications. J Appl Phys 99:104503

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. Harbecke B (1986) Coherent and incoherent reflection and transmission of multilayer systems. Appl Phys B 39:165

    Article  Google Scholar 

  160. Rostalski J, Meissner D (2000) Photocurrent spectroscopy for the investigation of charge carrier generation and transport mechanisms in organic p/n-junction solar cells. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 63:37

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Gruber DP, Meinhardt G, Papousek W (2005) Modelling the light absorption in organic photovoltaic devices. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 87:215

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Niggemann M, Bläsi B, Gombert A, Hinsch A, Hoppe H, Lalanne P, Meissner D, Wittwer V (2002) Trapping light in organic plastic solar cells with integrated diffraction gratings. Presented at the 17th European photovoltaic solar energy conference, Munich, 22–26 October 2001

    Google Scholar 

  163. Hoppe H, Arnold N, Meissner D, Sariciftci NS (2004) Modeling of optical absorption in conjugated polymer/fullerene bulk-heterojunction plastic solar cells. Thin Solid Films 451–452:589

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. Persson N-K, Schubert M, Inganäs O (2004) Optical modelling of a layered photovoltaic device with a polyfluorene derivative/fullerene as the active layer. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 83:169

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  165. Hoppe H, Shokhovets S, Gobsch G (2007) Inverse relation between photocurrent and absorption layer thickness in polymer solar cells. Phys Status Solidi RRL 1:R40

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. Slooff LH, Veenstra SC, Kroon JM, Moet DJD, Sweelssen J, Koetse MM (2007) Determining the internal quantum efficiency of highly efficient polymer solar cells through optical modeling. Appl Phys Lett 90:143506

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Lutsen L, Adriaensens P, Becker H, van Breemen AJ, Vanderzande D, Gelan J (1999) New synthesis of a soluble high molecular weight poly(arylene vinylene): poly[2-methoxy-5-(3,7-dimethyloctyloxy)-p-phenylene vinylene] polymerization and device properties. Macromolecules 32:6517

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Munters T, Martens T, Goris L, Vrindts V, Manca J, Lutsen L, Ceunick WD, Vanderzande D, Schepper LD, Gelan J, Sariciftci NS, Brabec CJ (2002) A comparison between state-of-the-art gilch and sulphinyl synthesised MDMO-PPV/PCBM bulk hetero-junction solar cells. Thin Solid Films 403–404:247

    Article  Google Scholar 

  169. Mozer A, Denk P, Scharber M, Neugebauer H, Sariciftci NS, Wagner P, Lutsen L, Vanderzande D (2004) Novel regiospecific MDMO-PPV copolymer with improved charge transport for bulk heterojunction solar cells. J Phys Chem B 108:5235

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  170. Wienk MM, Kroon JM, Verhees WJH, Knol J, Hummelen JC, van Hall PA, Janssen RAJ (2003) Efficient methano[70]fullerene/MDMO-PPV bulk heterojunction photovoltaic cells. Angew Chem Int Ed 42:3371

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Camaioni N, Ridolfi G, Casalbore-Miceli G, Possamai G, Maggini M (2002) The effect of a mild thermal treatment on the performance of poly(3-alkylthiophene)/fullerene solar cells. Adv Mater 14:1735

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. Padinger F, Rittberger RS, Sariciftci NS (2003) Effects of postproduction treatment on plastic solar cells. Adv Funct Mater 13:1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  173. Zhao Y, Yuan GX, Roche P, Leclerc M (1995) A calorimetric study of the phase transitions in poly(3-hexylthiophene). Polymer 36:2211

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  174. Berggren M, Gustafsson G, Inganäs O, Andersson MR, Wennerström O, Hjertberg T (1994) Thermal control of near-infrared and visible electroluminescence in alkyl-phenyl substituted polythiophenes. Appl Phys Lett 65:1489

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. Chirvase D, Parisi J, Hummelen JC, Dyakonov V (2004) Influence of nanomorphology on the photovoltaic action of polymer–fullerene composites. Nanotechnology 15:1317

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Brown PJ, Thomas DS, Köhler A, Wilson J, Kim JS, Ramsdale C, Sirringhaus H, Friend RH (2003) Effect of interchain interactions on the absorption and emission of poly(3-hexylthiophene). Phys Rev B 67:064203

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Ahn T, Lee H, Han S-H (2002) Effect of annealing of polythiophene derivative for polymer light-emitting diodes. Appl Phys Lett 80:392

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. Kim Y, Choulis SA, Nelson J, Bradley DDC, Cook S, Durrant JR (2005) Device annealing effect in organic solar cells with blends of regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene) and soluble fullerene. Appl Phys Lett 86:063502

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  179. Yang X, Loos J, Veenstra SC, Verhees WJH, Wienk MM, Kroon JM, Michels MAJ, Janssen RAJ (2005) Nanoscale morphology of high-performance polymer solar cells. Nano Lett 5:579

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  180. Ihn KJ, Moulton J, Smith P (1993) Whiskers of poly(3-alkylthiophene)s. J Polym Sci B Polym Phys 31:735

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. Erb T, Zhokhavets U, Gobsch G, Raleva S, Stühn B, Schilinsky P, Waldauf C, Brabec CJ (2005) Correlation between structural and optical properties of composite polymer films for organic solar cells. Adv Funct Mater 15:1193

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. Erb T, Zhokhavets U, Hoppe H, Gobsch G, Al-Ibrahim M, Ambacher O (2006) Absorption and crystallinity of poly(3-hexylthiophene)/fullerene blends in dependence on annealing temperature. Thin Solid Films 511–512:483

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. Zhokhavets U, Erb T, Gobsch G, Al-Ibrahim M, Ambacher O (2006) Relation between absorption and crystallinity of poly(3-hexylthiophene)/fullerene films for plastic solar cells. Chem Phys Lett 418:343

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  184. Yang X, van Duren JKJ, Rispens MT, Hummelen JC, Janssen RAJ, Michels MAJ, Loos J (2004) Crystalline organization of a methanofullerene as used for plastic solar-cell applications. Adv Mater 16:802

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  185. Schuller S, Schilinsky P, Hauch J, Brabec CJ (2004) Determination of the degradation constant of bulk heterojunction solar cells by accelerated lifetime measurements. Appl Phys A Mater Sci Proc 79:37

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Drees M, Hoppe H, Winder C, Neugebauer H, Sariciftci NS, Schwinger W, Schäffler F, Topf C, Scharber MC, Zhu Z, Gaudiana R (2005) Stabilization of the nanomorphology of polymer/fullerene bulk heterojunction blends using a novel polymerizable fullerene derivative. J Mater Chem 15:5158

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  187. Sivula K, Ball ZT, Watanabe N, Fréchet JMJ (2006) Amphiphilic diblock copolymer compatibilizers and their effect on the morphology and performance of polythiophene:fullerene solar cells. Adv Mater 18:206

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Brabec CJ, Hauch JA, Schilinsky P, Waldauf C (2005) Production aspects of organic photovoltaics and their impact on the commercialization of devices. MRS Bull 30:50

    Article  Google Scholar 

  189. Huang J, Li G, Yang Y (2005) Influence of composition and heat-treatment on the charge transport properties of poly(3-hexylthiophene) and [6,6]-phenyl C61-butyric acid methyl ester blends. Appl Phys Lett 87:112105

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  190. Kim Y, Cook S, Tuladhar SM, Choulis SA, Nelson J, Durrant JR, Bradley DDC, Giles M, McCulloch I, Ha C-S, Ree M (2006) A strong regioregularity effect in self-organizing conjugated polymer films and high-efficiency polythiophene:fullerene solar cells. Nat Mater 5:197

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  191. Li G, Shrotriya V, Yao Y, Yang Y (2005) Investigation of annealing effects and film thickness dependence of polymer solar cells based on poly(3-hexylthiophene). J Appl Phys 98:043704

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Moulé AJ, Bonekamp JB, Meerholz K (2006) The effect of active layer thickness and composition on the performance of bulk-heterojunction solar cells. J Appl Phys 100:094503

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Schilinsky P, Asawapirom U, Scherf U, Biele M, Brabec CJ (2005) Influence of the molecular weight of poly(3-hexylthiophene) on the performance of bulk heterojunction solar cells. Chem Mater 17:2175

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  194. Schilinsky P, Waldauf C, Brabec CJ (2002) Recombination and loss analysis in polythiophene based bulk heterojunction photodetectors. Appl Phys Lett 81:3885

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Svensson M, Zhang F, Veenstra SC, Verhees WJH, Hummelen JC, Kroon JM, Inganäs O, Andersson MR (2003) High-performance polymer solar cells of an alternating polyfluorene copolymer and a fullerene derivative. Adv Mater 15:988

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  196. Yohannes T, Zhang F, Svensson M, Hummelen JC, Andersson MR, Inganäs O (2004) Polyfluorene copolymer based bulk heterojunction solar cells. Thin Solid Films 449:152

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  197. Zhang F, Jespersen KG, Björström C, Svensson M, Andersson MR, Sundström V, Magnusson K, Moons E, Yartsev A, Inganäs O (2006) Influence of solvent mixing on the morphology and performance of solar cells based on polyfluorene copolymer/fullerene blends. Adv Funct Mater 16:667

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  198. Roncali J (1997) Synthetic principles for band gap control in linear π-conjugated systems. Chem Rev 97:173

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Winder C, Sariciftci NS (2004) Low bandgap polymers for photon harvesting in bulk heterojunction solar cells. J Mater Chem 14:1077

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. Thompson BC, Kim Y-G, Reynolds JR (2005) Spectral broadening in MEH-PPV:PCBM-based photovoltaic devices via blending with narrow band gap cyanovinylene-dioxythiophene polymer. Macromolecules 38:5359

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. Dhanabalan A, Knol J, Hummelen JC, Janssen RAJ (2001) Design and synthesis of new processible donor–acceptor dyad and triads. Synth Met 119:519

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  202. van Duren JKJ, Dhanabalan A, van Hal PA, Janssen RAJ (2001) Low-bandgap polymer photovoltaic cells. Synth Met 121:1587

    Article  Google Scholar 

  203. Brabec CJ, Winder C, Sariciftci NS, Hummelen JC, Dhanabalan A, van Hal PA, Janssen RAJ (2002) A low-bandgap semiconducting polymer for photovoltaic devices and infrared emitting diodes. Adv Funct Mater 12:709

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  204. Colladet K, Nicolas M, Goris L, Lutsen L, Vanderzande D (2004) Low-band gap polymers for photovoltaic applications. Thin Solid Films 451–452:7

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  205. Zhou Q, Hou Q, Zheng L, Deng X, Yu G, Cao Y (2004) Fluorene-based low band-gap copolymers for high performance. Appl Phys Lett 84:1653

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  206. Campos LM, Tontcheva A, Günes S, Sonmez G, Neugebauer H, Sariciftci NS, Wudl F (2005) Extended photocurrent spectrum of a low band gap polymer in a bulk heterojunction solar cell. Chem Mater 17:4031

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  207. Wang X, Perzon E, Delgado JL, de la Cruz P, Zhang F, Langa F, Andersson M, Inganäs O (2004) Infrared photocurrent spectral response from plastic solar cell with low-bandgap polyfluorene and fullerene derivative. Appl Phys Lett 85:5081

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  208. Wang X, Perzon E, Oswald F, Langa F, Admassie S, Andersson MR, Inganäs O (2005) Enhanced photocurrent spectral response in low-bandgap polyfluorene and C70-derivative-based solar cells. Adv Funct Mater 15:1665

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  209. Perzon E, Wang X, Zhang F, Mammo W, Delgado JL, de la Cruz P, Inganäs O, Langa F, Andersson MR (2005) Design, synthesis and properties of low-bandgap polyfluorenes for photovoltaic devices. Synth Met 154:53

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  210. Wang X, Perzon E, Mammo W, Oswald F, Admassie S, Persson N-K, Langa F, Andersson MR, Inganäs O (2006) Polymer solar cells with low-bandgap polymers blended with C70-derivative give photocurrent at 1 μm. Thin Solid Films 511–512:576

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  211. Perzon E, Wang X, Admassie S, Inganäs O, Andersson MR (2006) An alternating low band-gap polyfluorene for optoelectronic devices. Polymer 47:4261

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  212. Zhang F, Perzon E, Wang X, Mammo W, Andersson MR, Inganäs O (2005) Polymer solar cells based on a low-bandgap fluorene copolymer and a fullerene derivative with photocurrent extended to 850 nm. Adv Funct Mater 15:745

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  213. Zhang F, Mammo W, Andersson LM, Admassie S, Andersson MR, Inganäs O (2006) Low-bandgap alternating fluorene copolymer/methanofullerene heterojunctions in efficient near-infrared polymer solar cells. Adv Mater 18:2169

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  214. Lee SK, Cho NS, Kwak JH, Lim KS, Shim H-K, Hwang D-H, Brabec CJ (2006) New low band-gap alternating polyfluorene derivatives for photovoltaic cells. Thin Solid Films 511–512:157

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  215. Wienk M, Struijk MP, Janssen RAJ (2006) Low bandgap polymer bulk heterojunction solar cells. Chem Phys Lett 422:488

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  216. Iou J, Hou Q, Chen J, Cao Y (2006) Luminescence and photovoltaic cells of benzoselenadiazole-containing polyfluorenes. Synth Met 156:470

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  217. Wienk MM, Turbiez MGR, Struijk MP, Fonrodona M, Janssen RAJ (2006) Low-band gap poly(di-2-thienylthienopyrazine):fullerene solar cells. Appl Phys Lett 88:153511

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  218. Halls JJM, Friend RH (1997) The photovoltaic effect in a poly(p-phenylenevinylene)/perylene heterojunction. Synth Met 85:1307

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  219. Dittmer JJ, Lazzaroni R, Leclere P, Moretti P, Granström M, Petritsch K, Marseglia EA, Friend RH, Bredas JL, Rost H, Holmes AB (2000) Crystal network formation in organic solar cells. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 61:53

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  220. Deng X, Zheng L, Yang C, Li Y, Yu G, Cao Y (2004) Polymer photovoltaic devices fabricated with blend MEHPPV and organic small molecules. J Phys Chem B 108:3451

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  221. Halls JJM, Cornil J, de Santos DA, Silbey R, Hwang D-H, Holmes AB, Brédas JL, Friend RH (1999) Charge- and energy-transfer processes at polymer/polymer interfaces: a joint experimental and theoretical study. Phys Rev B 60:5721

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  222. Alam MM, Jenekhe SA (2004) Efficient solar cells from layered nanostructures of donor and acceptor conjugated polymers. Chem Mater 16:4647

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  223. Breeze AJ, Schlesinger Z, Carter SA, Tillmann H, Hörhold H-H (2004) Improving power efficiencies in polymer–polymer blend photovoltaics. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 83:263

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  224. Chasteen SV, Härter JO, Rumbles G, Scott JC, Nakazawa Y, Jones M, Hörhold H-H, Tillman H, Carter SA (2006) Comparison of blended versus layered structures for poly(p-phenylene vinylene)-based polymer photovoltaics. J Appl Phys 99:033709

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  225. Kietzke T, Egbe DAM, Hörhold H-H, Neher D (2006) Comparative study of M3EH-PPV-based bilayer photovoltaic devices. Macromolecules 39:4018

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  226. Kietzke T, Hörhold H-H, Neher D (2005) Efficient polymer solar cells based on M3EH-PPV. Chem Mater 17:6532

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  227. Veenstra SC, Verhees WJH, Kroon JM, Koetse MM, Sweelssen J, Bastiaansen JJAM, Schoo HFM, Yang X, Alexeev A, Loos J, Schubert US, Wienk MM (2004) Photovoltaic properties of a conjugated polymer blend of MDMO-PPV and PCNEPV. Chem Mater 16:2503

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  228. Quist PAC, Savenije TJ, Koetse MM, Veenstra SC, Kroon JM, Siebbeles LDA (2005) The effect of annealing on the charge-carrier dynamics in a polymer/polymer bulk heterojunction for photovoltaic applications. Adv Funct Mater 15:469

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. Offermans T, van Hal PA, Meskers SCJ, Koetse MM, Janssen RAJ (2005) Exciplex dynamics in a blend of p-conjugated polymers with electron donating and accepting properties: MDMO-PPV and PCNEPV. Phys Rev B 72:045213

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Veldman D, Offermans T, Sweelssen J, Koetse MM, Meskers SCJ, Janssen RAJ (2006) Triplet formation from the charge-separated state in blends of MDMO-PPV with cyano-containing acceptor polymers. Thin Solid Films 511–512:333

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  231. Russell DM, Arias AC, Friend RH, Silva C, Ego C, Grimsdale AC, Müllen K (2002) Efficient light harvesting in a photovoltaic diode composed of a semiconductor conjugated copolymer blend. Appl Phys Lett 80:2204

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  232. Kim Y, Cook S, Choulis SA, Nelson J, Durrant JR, Bradley DDC (2004) Organic photovoltaic devices based on blends of regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene) and poly(9,9-dioctylfluorene-co-benzothiadiazole). Chem Mater 16:4812

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. Ridolfi G, Camainoni N, Samori P, Gazzano M, Accorsi G, Armaroli N, Favaretto L, Barbarella G (2005) All-thiophene donor–acceptor blends: photophysics, morphology and photoresponse. J Mater Chem 15:895

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  234. Koetse MM, Sweelssen J, Hoekerd KT, Schoo HFM, Veenstra SC, Kroon JM, Yang X, Loos J (2006) Efficient polymer:polymer bulk heterojunction solar cells. Appl Phys Lett 88:083504

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  235. Halls JJM, Arias AC, MacKenzie JD, Wu W, Inbasekaran M, Woo EP, Friend RH (2000) Photodiodes based on polyfluorene composites: influence of morphology. Adv Mater 12:498

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  236. Arias AC, MacKenzie JD, Stevenson R, Halls JJM, Inbasekaran M, Woo EP, Richards D, Friend RH (2001) Photovoltaic performance and morphology of polyfluorene blends: a combined microscopic and photovoltaic investigation. Macromolecules 34:6005

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  237. Snaith HJ, Arias AC, Morteani AC, Silva C, Friend RH (2002) Charge generation kinetics and transport mechanisms in blended polyfluorene photovoltaic devices. Nano Lett 2:1353

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  238. Xia Y, Friend RH (2005) Controlled phase separation of polyfluorene blends via inkjet printing. Macromolecules 38:6466

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  239. Kietzke T, Neher D, Landfester K, Montenegro R, Güntner R, Scherf U (2003) Novel approaches to polymer blends based on polymer nanoparticles. Nat Mater 2:408

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  240. Kietzke T, Neher D, Kumke M, Montenegro R, Landfester K, Scherf U (2004) A nanoparticle approach to control the phase separation in polyfluorene photovoltaic devices. Macromolecules 37:4882

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  241. Arias AC, Corcoran N, Banach M, Friend RH, MacKenzie JD, Huck WTS (2002) Vertically segregated polymer-blend photovoltaic thin-film structures through surface-mediated solution processing. Appl Phys Lett 80:1695

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  242. Pacios R, Bradley DDC (2002) Charge separation in polyfluorene composites with internal donor/acceptor heterojunctions. Synth Met 127:261

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  243. Chiesa M, Bürgi L, Kim J-S, Shikler R, Friend RH, Sirringhaus H (2005) Correlation between surface photovoltage and blend morphology in polyfluorene-based photodiodes. Nano Lett 5:559

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  244. Glatzel T, Hoppe H, Sariciftci NS, Lux-Steiner MC, Komiyama M (2005) Kelvin probe force microscopy study on conjugated polymer/fullerene organic solar cells. Jpn J Appl Phys 44:5370

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  245. Park Y, Choong V, Gao Y, Hsieh BR, Tang CW (1996) Work funtion of indium tin oxide transparent conductor measured by photoelectron spectroscopy. Appl Phys Lett 68:2699

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  246. Snaith HJ, Greenham NC, Friend RH (2004) The origin of collected charge and open-circuit voltage in blended polyfluorene photovoltaic devices. Adv Mater 16:1640

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  247. Onsager L (1938) Initial recombination of ions. Phys Rev 54:554

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  248. Dhoot AS, Hogan JA, Morteani AC, Greenham NC (2004) Electromodulation of photoinduced charge transfer in polyfluorene bilayer devices. Appl Phys Lett 85:2256

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  249. Greenham NC, Peng X, Alivisatos AP (1996) Charge separation and transport in conjugated-polymer/semiconductor-nanocrystal composites studied by photoluminescence quenching and photoconductivity. Phys Rev B 54:17628

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  250. Huynh WU, Dittmer JJ, Alivisato AP (2002) Hybrid nanorod–polymer solar cells. Science 295:2425

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  251. Huynh WU, Dittmer JJ, Libby WC, Whiting GL, Alivisato AP (2003) Controlling the morphology of nanocrystal–polymer composites for solar cells. Adv Funct Mater 13:73

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  252. Pientka M, Dyakonov V, Meissner D, Rogach A, Talapin D, Weller H, Lutsen L, Vanderzande D (2004) Photoinduced charge transfer in composites of conjugated polymers and semiconductor nanocrystals. Nanotechnology 15:163

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  253. Pientka M, Wisch J, Böger S, Parisi J, Dyakonov V, Rogach A, Talapin D, Weller H (2004) Photogeneration of charge carriers in blends of conjugated polymers and semiconducting nanoparticles. Thin Solid Films 451–452:48

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  254. Sun B, Marx E, Greenham NC (2003) Photovoltaic devices using blends of branched CdSe nanoparticles and conjugated polymers. Nano Lett 3:961

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  255. Sun B, Snaith HJ, Dhoot AS, Westenhoff S, Greenham NC (2005) Vertically segregated hybrid blends for photovoltaic devices with improved efficiency. J Appl Phys 97:014914

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  256. Snaith HJ, Whiting GL, Sun B, Greenham NC, Huck WTS, Friend RH (2005) Self-organization of nanocrystals in polymer brushes: application in heterojunction photovoltaic diodes. Nano Lett 5:1653

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  257. Lin Y, Böker A, He J, Sill K, Xiang H, Abetz C, Li X, Wang J, Emrick T, Long S, Wang Q, Balazs A, Russell TP (2005) Self-directed self-assembly of nanoparticle/copolymer mixtures. Nature 434:55

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  258. Firth AV, Tao Y, Wang D, Ding J, Bensebaa F (2005) Microwave assisted synthesis of CdSe nanocrystals for straightforward integration into composite photovoltaic devices. J Mater Chem 15:4367

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  259. Landi BJ, Castro SL, Ruf HJ, Evans CM, Bailey SG, Raffaelle RP (2005) CdSe quantum dot–single wall carbon nanotube complexes for polymeric solar cells. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 87:733

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  260. Liang Z, Dzienis KL, Xu J, Wang Q (2006) Covalent layer-by-layer assembly of conjugated polymers and CdSe nanoparticles: multilayer structure and photovoltaic properties. Adv Funct Mater 16:542

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  261. Kang Y, Kim D (2006) Well-aligned CdS nanorod/conjugated polymer solar cells. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells 90:166

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  262. Kannan B, Castelino K, Majumdar A (2003) Design of nanostructured heterojunction polymer photovoltaic devices. Nano Lett 3:1729

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  263. Arici E, Sariciftci NS, Meissner D (2002) Photovoltaic properties of nanocrystalline CuInS2/methanofullerene solar cells. Mol Cryst Liq Cryst 385:129

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  264. Arici E, Hoppe H, Reuning A, Sariciftci NS, Meissner D (2002) CIS plastic solar cells. Presented at the 17th European photovoltaic solar energy conference, Munich, 22–26 October 2001, p 61

    Google Scholar 

  265. Arici E, Sariciftci NS, Meissner D (2003) Hybrid solar cells based on nanoparticles of CuInS2 in organic matrices. Adv Funct Mater 13:165

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  266. Arici E, Hoppe H, Schäffler F, Meissner D, Malik MA, Sariciftci NS (2004) Hybrid solar cells based on inorganic nanoclusters and semiconductive polymers. Thin Solid Films 451–452:612

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  267. Arici E, Hoppe H, Schäffler F, Meissner D, Malik MA, Sariciftci NS (2004) Morphology effects in nanocrystalline CuInSe2-conjugated polymer hybrid systems. Appl Phys A 79:59

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  268. Kang Y, Park N-G, Kim D (2005) Hybrid solar cells with vertically aligned CdTe nanorods and a conjugated polymer. Appl Phys Lett 86:113101

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  269. Watt AAR, Blake D, Warner JH, Thomson EA, Tavenner EL, Rubinsztein-Dunlop H, Meredith P (2005) Lead sulfide nanocrystal:conducting polymer solar cells. J Phys D Appl Phys 38:2006

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  270. Zhang S, Cyr PW, McDonald SA, Konstantatos G, Sargent EH (2005) Enhanced infrared photovoltaic efficiency in PbS nanocrystal/semiconducting polymer composites: 600-fold increase in maximum power output via control of the ligand barrier. Appl Phys Lett 87:233101

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  271. Cui D, Xu J, Zhu T, Paradee G, Ashok S, Gerhold M (2006) Harvest of near infrared light in PbSe nanocrystal–polymer hybrid photovoltaic cells. Appl Phys Lett 88:183111

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  272. Günes S, Neugebauer H, Sariciftci NS, Roither J, Kovalenko M, Pillwein G, Heiss W (2006) Hybrid solar cells using HgTe nanocrystals and nanoporous TiO2 electrodes. Adv Funct Mater 16:1095

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  273. Beek WJE, Wienk MM, Janssen RAJ (2004) Efficient hybrid solar cells from zinc oxide nanoparticles and a conjugated polymer. Adv Mater 16:1009

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  274. Beek WJE, Slooff LH, Wienk MM, Kroon JM, Janssen RAJ (2005) Hybrid solar cells using a zinc oxide precursor and a conjugated polymer. Adv Funct Mater 15:1703

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  275. Beek WJE, Wienk MM, Kemerink M, Yang X, Janssen RAJ (2005) Hybrid zinc oxide conjugated polymer bulk heterojunction solar cells. J Phys Chem B 109:9505

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  276. Beek WJE, Wienk MM, Janssen RAJ (2005) Hybrid polymer solar cells based on zinc oxide. J Mater Chem 15:2985

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  277. Beek WJE, Wienk MM, Janssen RAJ (2006) Hybrid solar cells from regioregular polythiophene and ZnO nanoparticles. Adv Funct Mater 16:1112

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  278. Greene LE, Law M, Tan DH, Montano M, Goldberger J, Somorjai G, Yang P (2005) General route to vertical ZnO nanowire arrays using textured ZnO seeds. Nano Lett 5:1231

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  279. Quist PAC, Slooff LH, Donker H, Kroon JM, Savanije TJ, Siebbeles LDA (2005) Formation and decay of charge carriers in hybrid MDMO-PPV:ZnO bulk heterojunctions produced from a ZnO precursor. Superlattices Microstruct 38:308

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  280. Olson DC, Piris J, Collins RT, Shaheen SE, Ginley DS (2006) Hybrid photovoltaic devices of polymer and ZnO nanofiber composites. Thin Solid Films 496:26

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  281. Peiro AM, Ravirajan P, Govender K, Boyle DS, O'Brien P, Bradley DDC, Nelson J, Durrant JR (2006) Hybrid polymer/metal oxide solar cells based on ZnO columnar structures. J Mater Chem 16:2088

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  282. Ravirajan P, Peiro AM, Nazeeruddin MK, Graetzel M, Bradley DDC, Durrant JR, Nelson J (2006) Hybrid polymer/zinc oxide photovoltaic devices with vertically oriented ZnO nanorods and an amphiphilic molecular interface layer. J Phys Chem B 110:7635

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  283. O'Regan B, Grätzel M (1991) A low cost, high-efficiency solar cell based on dye-sensitized colloidal TiO2 films. Nature 353:737

    Article  Google Scholar 

  284. Grätzel M (2001) Photoelectrochemical cells. Nature 414:338

    Article  Google Scholar 

  285. Bach U, Lupo D, Comte P, Moser JE, Weissörtel F, Salbeck J, Spreitzer H, Grätzel M (1998) Solid-state dye-sensitized mesoporous TiO2 solar cells with high photon-to-electron conversion efficiencies. Nature 395:583

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  286. Krüger J, Bach U, Grätzel M (2000) Modification of TiO2 heterojunctions with benzoic acid derivatives in hybrid molecular solid-state devices. Adv Mater 12:447

    Article  Google Scholar 

  287. Krüger J, Plass R, Cevey L, Piccirelli M, Grätzel M, Bach U (2001) High efficiency solid-state photovoltaic device due to inhibition of interface charge recombination. Appl Phys Lett 79:2085

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  288. Krüger J, Plass R, Grätzel M, Matthieu H-J (2002) Improvement of the photovoltaic performance of solid-state dye-sensitized device by silver complexation of the sensitizer cis-bis(4,4-dicarboxy-2,2-bipyridine)-bis(isothiocyanato)ruthenium(II). Appl Phys Lett 81:367

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  289. Kim Y-G, Walker J, Samuelson LA, Kumar J (2003) Efficient light harvesting polymers for nanocrystalline TiO2 photovoltaic cells. Nano Lett 3:523

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  290. Senadeera GKR, Nakamura K, Kitamura T, Wada Y, Yanagida S (2003) Fabrication of highly efficient polythiophene-sensitized metal oxide photovoltaic cells. Appl Phys Lett 83:5470

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  291. Nogueira AF, Longo C, De Paoli M-A (2004) Polymers in dye sensitized solar cells: overview and perspectives. Coord Chem Rev 248:1455

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  292. Arango AC, Carter SA, Brock PJ (1999) Charge transfer in photovoltaics consisting of interpenetrating networks of conjugated polymer and TiO2 nanoparticles. Appl Phys Lett 74:1698

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  293. Arango AC, Johnson LR, Bliznyuk VN, Schlesinger Z, Carter SA, Hörhold H-H (2000) Efficient titanium oxide/conjugated polymer photovoltaics for solar energy conversion. Adv Mater 12:1689

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  294. Salafsky JS (1999) Exciton dissociation, charge transport, and recombination in ultrathin, conjugated polymer–TiO2 nanocrystal intermixed composites. Phys Rev B 59:10885

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  295. Breeze AJ, Schlesinger Z, Carter SA (2001) Charge transport in TiO2/MEH-PPV polymer photovoltaics. Phys Rev B 64:125205

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  296. Gebeyehu D, Brabec CJ, Padinger F, Fromherz T, Spiekermann S, Vlachopoulos N, Kienberger F, Schindler H, Sariciftci NS (2001) Solid state dye-sensitized TiO2 solar cells with poly(3-octylthiophene) as hole transport layer. Synth Met 121:1549

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  297. Kaneko M, Takayama K, Pandey SS, Takashima W, Endo T, Rikukawa M, Kaneto K (2001) Photovoltaic cell using high mobility poly(alkylthiophene)s and TiO2. Synth Met 121:1537

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  298. Fan Q, McQuillin B, Bradley DDC, Whitelegg S, Seddon AB (2001) A solid-state solar cell using sol–gel processed material and a polymer. Chem Phys Lett 347:325

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  299. Qiao Q, McLeskey JJT (2005) Water-soluble polythiophene/nanocrystalline TiO2 solar cells. Appl Phys Lett 86:153501

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  300. Coakley KM, Srinivasan BS, Ziebarth JM, Goh C, Liu Y, McGehee MD (2005) Enhanced hole mobility in regioregular polythiophene infiltrated in straight nanopores. Adv Funct Mater 15:1927

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  301. Bartholomew GP, Heeger AJ (2005) Infiltration of regioregular poly[2,2′-(3-hexylthiophene)] into random nanocrystalline TiO2 networks. Adv Funct Mater 15:677

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  302. Ravirajan R, Bradley DDC, Nelson J, Haque SA, Durrant JR, Smit HJP, Kroon JM (2005) Efficient charge collection in hybrid polymer/TiO2 solar cells using poly(ethylenedioxythiophene)/polystyrene sulphonate as hole collector. Appl Phys Lett 86:143101

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  303. Oey CC, Djurisic AB, Wang H, Man KKY, Chan WK, Xie MH, Leung YH, Pandey A, Nunzi J-M, Chui PC (2006) Polymer–TiO2 solar cells: TiO2 interconnected network for improved cell performance. Nanotechnology 17:706

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  304. van Hal PA, Wienk MM, Kroon JM, Verhees WJH, Slooff LH, van Gennip WJH, Jonkheijm P, Janssen RAJ (2003) Photoinduced electron transfer and photovoltaic response of a MDMO-PPV:TiO2 bulk heterojunction. Adv Mater 15:118

    Article  Google Scholar 

  305. Slooff LH, Kroon JM, Loos J, Koetse MM, Sweelssen J (2005) Influence of the relative humidity on the performance of polymer/TiO2 photovoltaic cells. Adv Funct Mater 15:689

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  306. Feng W, Feng Y, Wu Z (2005) Ultrasonic-assisted synthesis of poly(3-hexylthiophene)/ TiO2 nanocomposite and its photovoltaic characteristics. Jpn J Appl Phys 44:7494

    Google Scholar 

  307. Iijima S (1991) Helical microtubes of graphitic carbon. Nature 354:56

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  308. de Heer WA, Châtelain A, Ugarte D (1995) A carbon nanotube field-emission electron source. Science 270:1179

    Article  Google Scholar 

  309. Romero DB, Carrard M, De Heer W, Zuppiroli L (1996) A carbon nanotube/organic semiconducting polymer heterojunction. Adv Mater 8:899

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  310. Curran SA, Ajayan PM, Blau WJ, Carroll DL, Coleman JN, Dalton AB, Davey AP, Drury A, McCarthy B, Maier S, Strevens A (1998) A composite from poly(m-phenylenevinylene-co-2,5-dioctoxy-p-phenylenevinylene) and carbon nanotubes: a novel material for molecular optoelectronics. Adv Mater 10:1091

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  311. Ago H, Petritsch K, Shaffer MSP, Windle AH, Friend RH (1999) Composites of carbon nanotubes and conjugated polymers for photovoltaic devices. Adv Mater 11:1281

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  312. Ago H, Kugler T, Cacialli F, Salaneck WR, Shaffer MSP, Windle AH, Friend RH (1999) Work functions and surface functional groups of multiwall carbon nanotubes. J Phys Chem B 103:8116

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  313. Ago H, Shaffer MSP, Ginger DS, Windle AH, Friend RH (2000) Electronic interaction between photoexcited poly(p-phenylene vinylene) and carbon nanotubes. Phys Rev B 61:2286

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  314. Kymakis E, Amaratunga GAJ (2002) Single-wall carbon nanotube/polymer photovoltaic devices. Appl Phys Lett 80:112

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  315. Kymakis E, Alexandrou I, Amaratunga GAJ (2003) High open-circuit voltage photovoltaic devices from carbon-nanotube–polymer composites. J Appl Phys 93:1764

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  316. Bhattacharyya S, Kymakis E, Amaratunga GAJ (2004) Photovoltaic properties of dye functionalized single-wall carbon nanotube/conjugated polymer devices. Chem Mater 16:4819

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  317. Kymakis E, Amaratunga GAJ (2005) Carbon nanotubes as electron acceptors in polymeric photovoltaics. Rev Adv Mater Sci 10:300

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  318. Kazaoui S, Minami N, Nalini B, Kim Y, Hara K (2005) Near-infrared photoconductive and photovoltaic devices using single-wall carbon nanotubes in conductive polymer films. J Appl Phys 98:084314

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  319. Rahman GMA, Guldi DM, Cagnoli R, Mucci A, Schenetti L, Vaccari L, Prato M (2005) Combining single-wall carbon nanotubes and photoactive polymers for photoconversion. J Am Chem Soc 127:10051

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  320. Guldi DM, Rahman GMA, Prato M, Jux N, Qin S, Ford W (2005) Single-wall carbon nanotubes as integrative building blocks for solar-energy conversion. Angew Chem Int Ed 44:2015

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  321. Landi BJ, Raffaelle RP, Castro SL, Bailey SG (2005) Single-wall carbon nanotube-polymer solar cells. Prog Photovoltaics Res Appl 13:165

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  322. Itoh E, Suzuki I, Miyairi K (2005) Field emission from carbon-nanotube-dispersed conducting polymer thin film and its application to photovoltaic devices. Jpn J Appl Phys 44:636

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  323. Rud JA, Lovell LS, Senn JW, Qiao Q, McLeskey JJT (2005) Water soluble polymer/carbon nanotube bulk heterojunction solar cells. J Mater Sci 40:1455

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  324. Kimura T, Ago H, Tobita M, Ohshima S, Kyotani M, Yumura M (2002) Polymer composites of carbon nanotubes aligned by a magnetic field. Adv Mater 14:1380

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  325. Cao J, Sun J-Z, Hong J, Li H-Y, Chen H-Z, Wang M (2004) Carbon nanotube/CdS core–shell nanowires prepared by a simple room-temperature chemical reduction method. Adv Mater 16:84

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  326. Robel I, Bunker BA, Kamat PV (2005) Single-walled carbon nanotube–CdS nanocomposites as light-harvesting assemblies: photoinduced charge-transfer interaction. Adv Mater 17:2458

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  327. Pradhan B, Batabyal SK, Pal AJ (2006) Functionalized carbon nanotubes in donor/acceptor-type photovoltaic devices. Appl Phys Lett 88:093106

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  328. Patyk RL, Lomba BS, Nogueira AF, Furtado CA, Santos AP, Mello RMQ, Micaroni L, Hümmelgen IA (2007) Carbon nanotube–polybithiophene photovoltaic devices with high open-circuit voltage. Phys Status Solidi RRL 1:43

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  329. Xu Z, Wu Y, Hu B, Ivanov IN, Geohegan DB (2005) Carbon nanotube effects on electroluminescence and photovoltaic response in conjugated polymers. Appl Phys Lett 87:263118

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  330. Pasquier AD, Unalan HE, Kanwal A, Miller S, Chhowalla M (2005) Conducting and transparent single-wall carbon nanotube electrodes for polymer–fullerene solar cells. Appl Phys Lett 87:203511

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  331. Ulbricht R, Jiang X, Lee S, Inoue K, Zhang M, Fang S, Baughman R, Zakhidov A (2006) Polymeric solar cell with oriented and strong transparent carbon nanotube anode. Phys Status Solidi B 243:3528

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  332. van de Lagemaat J, Barnes TM, Rumbles G, Shaheen SE, Coutts TJ, Weeks C, Levitsky I, Peltola J, Glatkowski P (2006) Organic solar cells with carbon nanotubes replacing In2O3:Sn as the transparent electrode. Appl Phys Lett 88:233503

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  333. Rowell MW, Topinka MA, McGehee MD, Prall H-J, Dennler G, Sariciftci NS, Hu L, Gruner G (2006) Organic solar cells with carbon nanotube network electrodes. Appl Phys Lett 88:233506

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Physics, Experimental Physics I, Technical University of Ilmenau, Weimarer Str. 32, 98693, Ilmenau, Germany

    Harald Hoppe

  2. Linz Institute for Organic Solar Cells (LIOS), Physical Chemistry, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Altenbergerstr. 69, 4040, Linz, Austria

    N. Serdar Sariciftci

Authors
  1. Harald Hoppe
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. N. Serdar Sariciftci
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Harald Hoppe .

Editor information

Seth R. Marder Kwang-Sup Lee

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2007 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Hoppe, H., Sariciftci, N.S. (2007). Polymer Solar Cells. In: Marder, S.R., Lee, KS. (eds) Photoresponsive Polymers II. Advances in Polymer Science, vol 214. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/12_2007_121

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation