Abstract
There have been heated debates on whether the focus on competition should be used as an approach to motivate learning and thus promote performance. This issue seems more salient in Singapore due to its highly competitive education system. Achievement goal theory was used to guide this research in the search for answers to this question. Data were collected from 8011 Secondary 3 students in 247 classes across 39 schools in Singapore. Two types of classroom environment were studied. One was classroom performance goal structure, which refers to the classroom climate focused on competing for performance; another was classroom mastery goal structure, which refers to the classroom climate focused on mastering new skills and knowledge. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was conducted to analyze multilevel data. The results from both English and mathematics classrooms showed consistent findings: classroom mastery goal structure was positively related to students’ academic self-efficacy, interest and enjoyment, personal mastery goal orientation, and engagement, whereas classroom performance goal structure was positively related to personal performance avoidance goal orientation and negatively related to academic achievement. Specifically, in English classrooms, classroom performance goal structure was positively related to avoidance coping and negatively related to engagement. In general, the results from the current study suggest that classroom mastery goal structure, rather than classroom performance goal structure, should be recommended as motivational strategies.
Keywords
- Classroom Mastery Goal Structure
- Performance Approach Goals
- Achievement Goal Theory
- Academic Self-efficacy
- Effort Withdrawal
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Ames, C. (1984). Achievement attributions and self-instructions under competitive and individualistic goal structures. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 478–487.
Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261–271.
Ames, C., & Ames, R. (1984). Systems of student and teacher motivation: Toward a qualitative definition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 535–556.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman.
Bong, M. (2008). Effects of parent-child relationships and classroom goal structures on motivation: Help-seeking avoidance, and cheating. Journal of Experimental Education, 76, 191–217.
Elliot, A. J., & Church, M. (1997). A hierarchical model of approach and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 218–232.
Kaplan, A., Gheen, M., & Midgley, C. (2002). Classroom goal structure and student disruptive behavior. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 72, 191–211.
Kaplan, A., Middleton, M. J., Urdan, T., & Midgley, C. (2002). Achievement goals and goal structures. In C. Midgley (Ed.), Goals, goal structures, and patterns of adaptive learning (pp. 21–53). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Karabenick, S. A. (2004). Perceived achievement goal structure and college student help seeking. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 569–581.
Lam, S. F., Yim, P. S., Law, J. S., & Cheung, R. W. (2004). The effects of competition on achievement motivation in Chinese classrooms. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 281–296.
Lau, S., Liem, A. D., & Nie, Y. (2008). Task- and self-related pathways to deep learning: The mediating role of achievement goals, classroom attentiveness, and group participation. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 78, 639–662.
Lau, S., & Nie, Y. (2008). Interplay between personal goals and classroom goal structures in predicting student outcomes: A multilevel analysis of person-context interactions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 15–29.
Lau, S., & Roeser, R. W. (2002). Cognitive abilities and motivational processes in high school students’ situational engagement and achievement in science. Educational Assessment, 8, 139–162.
Liem, A. D., Lau, S., & Nie, Y. (2008). The role of self-efficacy, task value, and achievement goals in predicting learning strategies, task disengagement, peer relationship, and achievement outcome. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 33, 486–512.
Liu, W. C., & Wang, C. K. J. (2008). Home environment and classroom climate: An investigation of their relation to students’ academic self-concept in a streamed setting. Current Psychology, 27(4), 242–256.
Meece, J. L., Anderman, E. M., & Anderman, L. H. (2006). Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 487–503.
Meece, J. L., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Hoyle, R. H. (1988). Students’ goal orientations and cognitive engagement in classroom activities. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 514–523.
Midgley, C., Maehr, M. L., Hruda, L. Z., Anderman, E., Anderman, L., Freeman, K. E., et al. (2000). Manual for the patterns of adaptive learning scales. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.
Moller, A. C., & Elliot, A. J. (2006). The 2 x 2 achievement goal framework: An overview of empirical research. In A. Mittel (Ed.), Focus on educational psychology (pp. 307–326). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers.
Murayama, K., & Elliot, A. J. (2009). The joint influence of personal achievement goals and classroom goal structures on achievement-relevant outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 432–447.
Nicholls, J. G. (1989). The competitive ethos and democratic education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Nicholls, J. G., Patashnick, M., & Nolen, S. B. (1985). Adolescents’ theories of education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 683–692.
Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D. A. F., Garcia, T., & Mckeachie, W. J. (1993). Reliability and predictive-validity of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53(3), 801–813.
Roeser, R. W., Midgley, C., & Urdan, T. C. (1996). Perceptions of the school psychological environment and early adolescents’ psychological and behavioral functioning in school: The mediating role of goals and belonging. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 408–422.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55, 68–78.
Ryan, A. M., Gheen, M. H., & Midgley, C. (1998). Why do some students avoid asking for help? An examination of the interplay among students’ academic efficacy, teachers’ social–emotional role, and the classroom goal structure. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(3), 528–535.
Schunk, D. H., Pintrich, P. R., & Meece, J. L. (2008). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall.
Stankov, L. (2010). Unforgiving Confucian culture: A breeding ground for high academic achievement, test anxiety and self-doubt? Learning and Individual Differences, 20(6), 555–563.
Steinberg, L., Lamborn, S. D., Dornbusch, S. M., & Darling, N. (1992). Impact of parenting practices on adolescent achievement: Authoritative parenting, school involvement, and encouragement to succeed. Child Development, 63(5), 1266–1281.
Turner, J. C., Midgley, C., Meyer, D. K., Gheen, M., Anderman, E. M., Kang, Y., et al. (2002). The classroom environment and students’ reports of avoidance strategies in mathematics: A multimethod study. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(1), 88.
Urdan, T. (2004). Predictors of academic self-handicapping and achievement: Examining achievement goals, classroom goal structures, and culture. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 251–264.
Wei, J. (2003). An analysis on the influencing multi-factor on mental health of students in middle school. Journal of Clinical Psychosomatic Diseases, 9(3), 162–165.
Wellborn, J., & Connell, J. (1987). Manual for the Rochester assessment package for schools. Rochester: University of Rochester.
Yeung, A. S., Lau, S., & Nie, Y. (2011). Primary and secondary students’ motivation in learning English: Grade and gender differences. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 36, 246–256.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Appendix
Appendix
Sample Items for Self-Report Scales
Classroom Mastery Goal Structure ( Four Items )
-
1.
My math teacher wants us to really understand the subject, not just to remember facts or rules.
-
2.
My math teacher really wants us to enjoy learning new things in math.
-
3.
My math teacher tells us that it is very important to try hard.
-
4.
My math teacher gives us time to learn new ideas.
Classroom Performance Goal Structure ( Four Items )
-
1.
My math teacher tells the class which pupils are doing poorly in their work.
-
2.
My math teacher calls on smart pupils more than other pupils.
-
3.
My math teacher emphasizes that we do better than pupils in other classes.
-
4.
My math teacher thinks that it is more important to do well in math tests than to learn new things.
Engagement ( Five Items )
-
1.
In my math class, I pay attention well.
-
2.
In my math class, I try my best to complete class work.
-
3.
In my math class, I try my best to contribute during small group discussions.
-
4.
In my math class, I share my ideas during group work.
-
5.
In my math class, I try my best to contribute to group work.
Self - Efficacy ( Five Items )
-
1.
I am sure I can learn the skills taught in math class well.
-
2.
I can do almost all the work in math class if I do not give up.
-
3.
If I have enough time, I can do a good job in all my math work.
-
4.
Even if the work in math is hard, I can learn it.
-
5.
I am sure I can do difficult work in my math class.
Interest ( Four Items )
-
1.
I enjoy doing math.
-
2.
I am really interested in math.
-
3.
I think it’s great that I learn all sorts of things in math class.
-
4.
I find math interesting.
Personal Mastery : Approach Goal ( Five Items )
-
1.
An important reason I do my math work is that I like to learn new things.
-
2.
I like the work in my math class best when it challenges me to think.
-
3.
An important reason I do my work in math class is because I want to get better at it.
-
4.
An important reason I do my math work is that I enjoy it.
-
5.
An important reason I do my math work is that I want to learn challenging ideas well.
Personal Performance - Approach Goal ( Four Items )
-
I want to show pupils in my math class that I am smart.
-
I like to show my teacher that I am smarter than the other pupils in my math class.
-
It is important to me that the other pupils in my math class think I am smart.
-
I feel successful in math if I get better marks than most of the other pupils.
Avoidance Coping ( Three Items )
-
1.
When the work in math is dull and boring, I stop doing it even if it is incomplete.
-
2.
When the work in math is difficult, I give up.
-
3.
When the work in math is difficult, I only study the easy parts.
Effort Withdrawal ( Four Items )
-
1.
I wait until the last minute to study for a math test/exam.
-
2.
I like math class best when I do not have to work hard.
-
3.
I do not work hard on my math homework.
-
4.
I try to put in the least effort in my math class.
Personal Performance - Avoidance Goal ( Four Items )
-
1.
I do not participate in math class because I do not want to look stupid.
-
2.
It is important that the other pupils in my math class do not think I am stupid.
-
3.
I do my math work because I do not want the teacher to think that I am stupid.
-
4.
I try to avoid answering questions because I am afraid of giving wrong answers.
Test Anxiety ( Five Items )
-
1.
I worry a lot about math tests.
-
2.
When taking math tests, I worry about doing poorly.
-
3.
I feel uneasy when taking math tests.
-
4.
I think a lot about how poorly I am doing when taking math tests.
-
5.
I am nervous when taking math tests.
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer Science+Business Media Singapore
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Nie, Y. (2016). Focus on Competing for Performance or Mastering New Knowledge? Insights from Discovering the Relations Between Classroom Goal Structures and Students’ Learning in Singapore Secondary Schools. In: Liu, W., Wang, J., Ryan, R. (eds) Building Autonomous Learners. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-630-0_14
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-630-0_14
Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore
Print ISBN: 978-981-287-629-4
Online ISBN: 978-981-287-630-0
eBook Packages: EducationEducation (R0)