Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

New Directions in Gender Role Conflict Research

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Masculinities in a Global Era

Part of the book series: International and Cultural Psychology ((ICUP,volume 4))

Abstract

Gender role conflict theory has made a significant contribution to the area of men’s health (O’Neil 2008). However, despite its popularity, numerous criticisms have been directed against the GRCS – both theoretical and psychometric. For example, items have been critiqued for not directly measuring conflict “as it is generally understood (i.e., the result of two competing response tendencies)” (Betz & Fitzgerald. Annual Review of Psychology, 4(1), 360, 1993). Recently, an attempt was made to develop an adolescent version of the GRCS (Blazina et al. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 6(1), 39–45, 2005). None of the psychometric concerns that had been raised about this scale were addressed and only nominal changes were made to item content (e.g., “When I am sexually involved with others, I do not express my strong feelings” was modified to “When I am personally involved with others, I do not express my strong feelings”). A vital omission was that, in the development of this scale, adolescents did not inform item generation, and no contact was made with adolescents to see if they considered factors, traditionally used with men, to possess personal relevance (i.e., there is no reference to face or content validity). A psychometrically sound measure which targets adolescent boys should be “grounded in and relevant to [their] experiences” (Chu et al. Men and Masculinities, 8(1), 99, 2005) as there may be factors used in adult scales that are not salient to younger individuals. Conversely, there may be latent factors left unexplored or unrealized when researchers do not involve adolescents in the formulation of scale items. This chapter outlines critiques of gender role conflict theory and of the psychometric properties of the adult and adolescent versions of the GRCS. Advancements in psychometric theory and in masculinity research have occurred since the GRCS was created in 1986. Thus, the chapter argues that this measure needs to be updated. Using data obtained from focus groups and personal interviews of adolescent males residing in the Republic of Ireland, the authors contend that modifications to GRC, as it pertains to adolescents, are required. Such modifications will ensure that resultant measures are culturally nuanced and cohort specific. It is anticipated that this chapter will make an important advance in social scientists’ understanding of gender role conflict theory as adolescents experience it.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Bandalos, D. L. (2002). The effects of item parceling on goodness-of-fit and parameter estimate bias in structural equation modeling. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9, 78–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berger, J. M., Levant, R. F., McMillan, K. K., Kelleher, W., & Sellers, A. (2005). Impact of gender role conflict, traditional masculinity ideology, alexithymia, and age on men’s attitudes toward psychological help seeking. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 6, 73–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Betz, N. E., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1993). Individuality and diversity: Theory and research in counseling psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 4(1), 343–381.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blazina, C., Pisecco, S., & O’Neil, J. M. (2005). An adaption of the gender role conflict scale for adolescents: Psychometric issues and correlates with psychological distress. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 6(1), 39–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blazina, C., Cordova, M. A., Pisecco, S., & Settle, A. G. (2007). Gender role conflict scale for adolescents: Correlates with masculinity ideology. Thymos Journal of Boyhood Studies, 1(2), 191–204.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brannon, R., & Juni, S. (1984). A scale for measuring attitudes toward masculinity. Psychological Documents, 14(6), 12–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, J. L., & Snow, B. M. (1992). Gender role conflict and family environment as predictors of men’s marital satisfaction. Journal of Family Psychology, 6(1), 84–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choi, H., Kim, J., Hwang, M., & Heppner, M. (2010). Self-esteem as a mediator between instrumentality, gender role conflict and depression in male Korean high school students. Sex Roles, 63(5–6), 361–372.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chu, J. Y., Porche, M. V., & Tolman, D. L. (2005). The adolescent masculinity ideology in relationships scale: Development and validation of a new measure for boys. Men and Masculinities, 8(1), 93–115.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Connell, R. W. (2005). Growing up masculine: Rethinking the significance of adolescence in the making of masculinities. Irish Journal of Sociology, 14(2), 11–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connell, R. W., & Messerschmidt, J. W. (2005). Hegemonic masculinity: Rethinking the concept. Gender and Society, 19(6), 829–859.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Conners, C. K., & Wells, K. C. (1997). Conners–Wells’ Adolescent Self-Report Scales (CASS). Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cournoyer, R. J., & Mahalik, J. R. (1995). Cross-sectional study of gender role conflict examining college-aged and middle-aged men. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42(1), 11–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dolnicar, S., & Rossiter, J. R. (2009). Not offering don’t know options in brand image surveys contaminates data. In Australia and New Zealand Marketing Academy (ANZMAC) Conference (pp. 1–7). Melbourne: Australian & New Zealand Marketing Academy.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eisler, R. M., & Skidmore, J. R. (1987). Masculine gender role stress: Scale development and component factors in the appraisal of stressful situations. Behavior Modification, 1, 123–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fischer, A. R., & Good, G. E. (1997). Men and psychotherapy: An investigation of alexithymia, intimacy, and masculine gender roles. Psychotherapy, 34, 160–170.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Galligan, S. B., Barnett, R. V., Brennan, M. A., & Israel, G. D. (2010). The effects of gender role conflict on adolescent and emerging adult male resiliency. The Journal of Men’s Studies, 18(1), 3–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Good, G. E., Borst, T. S., & Wallace, D. L. (1994). Masculinity research: A review and critique. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 3(1), 3–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Good, G. E., Robertson, J. M., O’Neil, J. M., Fitzgerald, L. F., Stevens, M., DeBord, K., et al. (1995). Male gender role conflict: Psychometric issues and relations to psychological distress. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42, 3–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardesty, D. M., & Bearden, W. O. (2004). The use of expert judges in scale development: Implications for improving face validity of measures of unobservable constructs. Journal of Business Research, 57, 98–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hearn, J., Pringle, K., Müller, U., Oleksy, E., Lattu, E., Chernova, J., & Kolga, V. (2002). Critical studies on men in ten European countries: (1) The state of academic research. Men and Masculinities, 4, 380–408.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heppner, P. P., & Heppner, M. J. (2008). The gender role conflict literature: Fruits of sustained commitment. The Counseling Psychologist, 35, 455–461.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kahn, J. S. (2009). An introduction to masculinities. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, J., Choi, H., Kim, H., & Park, K. (2009). Validation of the Korean version of the gender role conflict scale. Asia Pacific Education Review, 10(2), 215–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levant, R. F. (2011). Award for distinguished professional contributions to applied research. American Psychologist, 66(8), 763–776.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levant, R. F., Hirsch, L., Celentano, E., Cozza, T., Hill, S., MacRachorn, M., et al. (1992). The male role: An investigation of contemporary norms. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 14, 325–337.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levant, R. F., Smalley, K. B., Aupont, M., House, A. T., Richmond, K., & Noronha, D. (2007). Initial validation of the Male Role Norms Inventory-Revised (MRNI-R). Journal of Men’s Studies, 15(1), 83–100.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, W. M., Rochlen, A., & Mohr, J. J. (2005). Real and ideal gender-role conflict: Exploring psychological distress among men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 6, 137–148.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mahalik, J. R., Locke, B. D., Ludlow, L. H., Diemer, M. A., Scott, L., Gottfried, M., & Freitas, G. (2003). Development of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 4(1), 3–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGinness, C. (2011). Twenty-five years of change in men’s gender role strain as measured by the gender role conflict scale. Doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas.

    Google Scholar 

  • Messner, M. A. (1992). Power at play: Sports and the problem of masculinity. Boston: Beacon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moradi, B., Tokar, D. M., Schaub, M., Jome, L. M., & Serna, G. S. (2000). Revisiting the Structural Validity of the Gender Role Conflict Scale. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 1(1), 62–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Norwalk, K. E., Vandiver, B. J., White, A. M., & Englar-Carlson, M. (2011). Factor Structure of the Gender Role Conflict Scale in African American and European American Men. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 12(2), 128–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Neil, J. M. (1981a). Male sex role conflicts, sexism, and masculinity: Psychological implications for men, women, and the counseling psychologist. The Counseling Psychologist, 9(2), 61–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Neil, J. M. (1981b). Patterns of gender role conflict and strain: Sexism and fear of femininity in men’s lives. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 60, 203–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Neil, J. M. (1982). Gender role conflict and strain in men’s lives: Implications for psychiatrists, psychologists, and other human service providers. In K. Solomon & N. B. Levy (Eds.), Men in transition: Changing male roles, theory, and therapy (pp. 5–44). New York: Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • O’Neil, J. M. (1990). Assessing men’s gender role conflict. In D. Moore & F. Leafgren (Eds.), Men in conflict: Problem solving strategies and interventions (pp. 23–38). Alexandria: American Association for Counseling and Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Neil, J. M. (2008a). Summarizing 25 years of research on men’s gender role conflict using the gender role conflict scale: New research paradigms and clinical implications. The Counseling Psychologist, 36(3), 358–445.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Neil, J. M. (2008b). Complexity, contextualism, and multiculturalism: Responses to the critiques and future directions for the gender role conflict research program. The Counseling Psychologist, 36(3), 469–476.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Neil, J.M. (2011) Exploring the psychology of Russian men with Russian psychologists during my Fulbright scholarship in the former soviet union. In C. Blazina & D. Shen-Miller (Eds.), An international psychology of men: Theoretical advances, case studies, and clinical innovations (pp. 361–383). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Neil, J. M., Helm, B., Gable, R., David, L., & Wrightsman, L. (1986). Gender Role Conflict Scale (GRCS): College men’s fears of femininity. Sex Roles, 14, 335–350.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Neil, J. M., Good, G. E., & Holmes, S. (1995). Fifteen years of theory and research on men’s gender role conflict: New paradigms for empirical research. In R. Levant & W. Pollack (Eds.), The new psychology of men (pp. 164–206). New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oransky, M., & Fisher, C. (2009). The development and validation of the meanings of adolescent masculinity scale. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 10(1), 57–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pleck, J. H. (1995). The gender role strain paradigm: An update. In R. F. Levant & W. S. Pollack (Eds.), A new psychology of men (pp. 11–32). New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, J. R., Abbey-Hines, J., & Rando, R. A. (1997). Confirmatory factor analysis of the gender role conflict scale: A cross validation of Good et al. 1995. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 30, 137–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan, C., & Gartland, R. (1999). The use of a specific non-response option on likert-type scales. Tourism Management, 20(1), 107–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, G. T., McCarthy, D. M., & Anderson, K. G. (2000). On sins of short-form development. Psychological Assessment, 12(1), 102–111.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steinfeldt, J. A., Wong, Y. J., Hagan, A. R., & Hoag, J. M. (2011). A contextual examination of gender role conflict among college football players. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 12(4), 311–323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, E. H., & Pleck, J. H. (1986). The structure of the male norms. American Behavioral Scientist, 29, 531–543.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, E. H., Pleck, J. H., & Ferrera, D. L. (1992). Men and masculinity: Scales for masculinity ideology and masculinity-related constructs. Sex Roles, 27, 573–607.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walker, D. F., Tokar, D. M., & Fischer, A. R. (2000). What are eight popular masculinity-related instruments measuring? Underlying dimensions and their relations to sociosexuality. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 1(2), 98–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watts, R. H., & Borders, L. D. (2005). Boys’ perceptions of the male role: Understanding gender role conflict in adolescent males. Journal of Men’s Studies, 13, 267–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wester, S. R. (2008). Thinking complexly about men, gender role conflict, and counseling psychology. The Counseling Psychologist, 36(3), 462–468.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wester, S. R., Pionke, D. R., & Vogel, D. L. (2005). Male gender role conflict, gay men, and same-sex romantic relationships. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 6, 195–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wester, S. R., Vogel, D. L., Wei, M., & McLain, R. (2006b). African American men, gender role conflict, and psychological distress: The role of racial identity. Journal of Counseling and Development, 84, 419–429.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wester, S. R., Kuo, B., & Vogel, D. L. (2006a). Multicultural coping: Chinese-Canadian adolescents, male gender role conflict, and psychological distress. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 7, 87–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wester, S. R., Christianson, H. F., Vogel, D. L., & Wei, M. (2007). Male gender role conflict and psychological distress: The role of social support. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 8, 215–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wester, S. R., Vogel, D. L., O’Neil, J. M., & Danforth, L. (2012). Development and evaluation of the Gender Role Conflict Scale Short Form (GRCS-SF). Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 13(2), 199–210.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Whorley, M. R., & Addis, M. E. (2006). Ten years of psychological research on men and masculinity in the United States: Dominant methodological trends. Sex Roles, 55, 649–658.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zamarripa, M. X., Wampold, B. E., & Gregory, E. (2003). Male gender role conflict, depression, and anxiety: Clarification and generalizability to women. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 50, 333–338.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Psychology, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland

    Cormac Ó. Beaglaoich & Kiran M. Sarma

  2. Department of Psychology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, S7N5A5, Canada

    Todd G. Morrison

Authors
  1. Cormac Ó. Beaglaoich
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kiran M. Sarma
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Todd G. Morrison
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Cormac Ó. Beaglaoich .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. MCD University of Divinity, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

    Joseph Gelfer

Appendices

Appendix 1

Expectations of Adolescent Males

  1. 1.

    I’m interested in the expectations that young people experience and I was hoping you could say something about this.

  2. 2.

    What are the sources of these expectations?

  3. 3.

    Are there differences in these expectations with age?

  4. 4.

    How do you deal with these expectations?

Stress in Adolescents

  1. 5.

    I’m interested in the kinds of stress that young people experience and I was hoping you could say something about this.

  2. 6.

    What are the sources of these stresses?

  3. 7.

    Are there differences in stresses with age?

  4. 8.

    How do you deal with these stresses?

Social Norms

  1. 9.

    Generally speaking, are there differences in the ways fellas act as opposed to how girls act?

  2. 10.

    Are there differences in the way fellas act in front of parents/teachers and the way they would generally act without parents/teacher being around?

  3. 11.

    Are there differences in the way fellas act when they’re older or younger?

  4. 12.

    Are there certain ways a fella should act?

  5. 13.

    Are there inappropriate ways for a fella to act?

    If so,

    1. (a)

      Why?

    2. (b)

      What would happen if someone acted like this (deviating or violating norms)?

    3. (c)

      What is likely to be said to someone/about someone if they did?

    4. (d)

      Would people think less of someone as a result? If so, in what way?

  6. 14.

    Are there differences between how fellas act around their male friends and how they might act around their female friends?

    If so,

    1. (a)

      Why?

    2. (b)

      What are these differences?

Appendix 2

The Gender Role Conflict Scale for Adolescents (GRCS-A)

Restricted Affection Between Men (RAM)

  1. 1.

    Verbally expressing my love to another man is hard for me.

  2. 2.

    Affection with other men makes me tense.

  3. 3.

    Expressing my emotions to other men is risky.

  4. 4.

    Hugging other men is difficult for me.

  5. 5.

    I am sometimes hesitant to show my affection to men because of how others might judge me.

  6. 6.

    Being very personal with other men makes me feel anxious.

  7. 7.

    Men who are too friendly to me make me wonder about their sexual preference (men or women).

Restricted Emotionality (RE)

  1. 8.

    I have difficulty telling others I care about them.

  2. 9.

    Strong emotions are difficult for me to understand.

  3. 10.

    Expressing feelings makes me feel open to attack by other people.

  4. 11.

    It’s hard for me to talk about my feelings with others.

  5. 12.

    It’s hard for me to express my emotional needs to others.

  6. 13.

    When I am personally involved with others, I do not express my strong feelings.

  7. 14.

    I often have trouble finding words that describe how I am feeling.

  8. 15.

    I do not like to show my emotions to other people.

  9. 16.

    Telling others about my strong feelings is difficult to me.

Conflict Between Work, School, and Family (CWSF)

  1. 17.

    I feel torn between my hectic work or school schedule and caring for my health.

  2. 18.

    My career, job, or school affects the quality of my leisure or family life.

  3. 19.

    I judge other people’s value by their level of achievement and success.

  4. 20.

    Finding time to relax is difficult for me.

  5. 21.

    My need to work or study keeps me from my family or leisure more than I would like.

  6. 22.

    My work or school often disrupts other parts of my life (home, health, leisure).

  7. 23.

    Overwork and stress caused by the need to achieve on the job or in school affects or/hurts my life.

Need for Success and Achievement (NSA)

  1. 24.

    Getting to the top of my class is important to me.

  2. 25.

    Making money is part of my idea of being a successful man.

  3. 26.

    Sometimes I define my personal value by my success at school.

  4. 27.

    I worry about failing and how it affects my doing well as a man.

  5. 28.

    Doing well all the time is important to me.

  6. 29.

    I strive to be more successful than others.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Beaglaoich, C.Ó., Sarma, K.M., Morrison, T.G. (2014). New Directions in Gender Role Conflict Research. In: Gelfer, J. (eds) Masculinities in a Global Era. International and Cultural Psychology, vol 4. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6931-5_2

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation