Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Cerebral Disease in the Antiphospholipid Syndrome

  • Chapter
Hughes Syndrome

Abstract

Antiphospholipid antibody syndrome (APS) has been associated with central nervous system (CNS) involvement in a large number of patients. However, not all studies have found a significant correlation between antiocardiolipin (aCL) levels and neurological/neuropsychiatric manifestations of APS [1]. Clinical manifestations of APS associated with the CNS include arterial thrombotic events, psychiatric manifestations and a variety of other non-thrombotic neurological syndromes [2] (see Table 5.1). In fact, some of the most debilitating clinical aspects of APS are the neurological and neuropsychiatric manifestations. Nevertheless, the specific role of antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) in the CNS remains one of the least understood aspects of this syndrome, which is partly due to the heterogeneity of its symptomatology. Patients may present with diffuse or global dysfunction, including coma, grand mal seizures, and cognitive dysfunction, psychosis, affective disorders, as well as focal symptoms attributable to lesions to a specific area of the brain. A majority of cognitive disorders associated with aPL area are probably the result of thrombotic events; however, there may be other aPL-mediated mechanisms, as well [3].

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 74.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Emmi L, Bergamini C, Spinelli A, Liotta F, Marchione T, Caldini A et al. Ann New York Acad Sci 1997; 823: 188–200.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. McNeil HP, Chesterman CN, Krilis SA. Immunology and clinical importance of antiphospholipid antibodies. Adv Immunol 1991; 49: 193–280.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Kent M, Vogt E, Rote NS. Monoclonal antiphosatidylserine antibodies react directly with feline and murine central nervous system. J Rheumatol 199724: 1725–1733.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Shah NM, Khamashta MA, Atsumi T, Hughes GRV. Outcome of patients with anticardiolipin antibodies: a 10 year follow-up of 52 patients. Lupus 1998; 7: 3–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Krnic-Barrie S, Reister O’Connor C, Looney SW, Pierangeli SS, Harris EN (1997). A retrospective review of 61 patients with antiphospholipid syndrome. Arch Intern Med 157: 2101–2108.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Antiphospholipid Antibodies in Stroke Study (APASS) Group. Anticardiolipin antibodies are an independent risk factor for first ischemic stroke. Neurology 1993; 43: 2069–2073.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Camerlingo M, Casto L, Censori B, Drago G, Frigeni A, Ferraro B. Anticardiolipin antibodies in acute non-hemorrhagic stroke seen within six hours after onset. Acta Neurol Scand 1995; 92: 60–71.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Brey RL, Hart RG, Sherman DG, Tegeler CT. Antiphospholipid antibodies and cerebral ischemia in young people. Neurology 1990; 40: 1190–1196.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Levine SR, Deegan MJ, Futrell N, Welch KMA. Cerebrovascular and neurologic disease associated with antiphospholipid antibodies: 48 cases. Neurology 1990; 40: 1190–1196.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Brey, RL, Abbott RD, Sharp DS et al. Beta-2-glycoprotein 1-dependent anticardiolipin antibodies are an independent risk factor for ischemic stroke in the Honolulu heart cohort. Stroke 1999; 30: 250.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Levine SR, Brey RL, Sawaya KL, Salowich-Palm L, Kokkinos J, Kostrzema B et al. Recurrent stroke and thrombo-occlusive events in the antiphospholipid syndrome. Ann Neurol 1995; 38: 119–124.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Montalban J, Khamashta M, Davalos A, Codina M, Swana GT, Calcagnotto ME et al. Value of immunologic testing in stroke patients: a prospective multicenter study. Stroke 1994; 25: 2412–2415.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Ginsburg KS, Liang MH, Newcomer L, Goldhaber SZ, Schur PH, Hennekens CH et al. Anticardiolipin antibodies and the risk for ischemic stroke and venous thrombosis. Ann Intern Med 1992; 117: 997–1002.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Antiphospholipid Antibody in Stroke Study Group (APASS).Anticardiolipin antibodies and the risk of recurrent thrombo-occlusive events and death. Neurology 1997; 48: 91–94.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Klemp P, Cooper RC, Strauss FJ et al. Anticardiolipin antibodies in ischemic heart disease. Clin Exp Immunol 1988; 89: 411–419.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Ciocca RG, Choi J, Graham AM. Antiphospholipid antibodies lead to increased risk in cardiovascular surgery. Am J Surg 1995; 170: 198–200.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Del Papa N, Raschi ER, Catelli L, Khmashta MA, Ichikawa K, Tincani A. Endothelial cells as a target for antiphospholipid antibodies: role of anti-beta-2-glycoprotein 1 antibodies. AJRI 1997; 38: 212–217.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Del Papa N, Guidali L, Sala A, Buccellati C, Khamashta MA, Ichikawa K. Endothelial cells as target for antiphospholipid antibodies. Arthritis Rheumatol 1997; 40: 551–561.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Coull BM, Levine SR, Brey RL. The role of antiphospholipid antibodies and stroke. Neurol Clin 1992; 10: 125–143.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Antiphospholipid Antibodies in Stroke Study (APASS) Group. Clinical and laboratory findings in patients with antiphospholipid antibodies and cerebral ischemia. Stroke 1990; 21: 1268–1273.

    Google Scholar 

  21. Ford SE, Lillicrap DM, Brunet D, Ford PM. Thrombotic endocarditis and lupus anticoagulant, a pathogenetic possibility for idiopathic rheumatic type valvular heart disease. Arch Pathol Lab Med 1989; 113: 350–353.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Khamashta MA, Cervera R, Asherson RA et al. Association of antibodies against phospholipids with valvular heart disease in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Lancet 1990; 335: 1541–1544.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Badui E, Solorio S, Martinez E, Bravo G, Enciso R, Barile L et al. The heart in the primary antiphospholipid syndrome. Arch Med Res 1995; 26: 115–120.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Nesher G, Ilany J, Rosenmann D, Abraham AS. Valvular dysfunction in antiphospholipid syndrome: prevalence, clinical features and treatment. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1997; 27: 27–35.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Ford SE, Kennedy LA, Ford PM. Clinico-pathological correlations of antiphospholipid antibodies. Arch Path Lab Med 1994; 118: 491–495.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Asherson RA. The catastrophic antiphospholipid syndrome, 1998. A review of the clinical features, possible pathogenesis and treatment. Lupus 1998; 7 (Suppl 2): 55–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Levine SR, Salowich-Palm L, Sawaya KL, Perry M, Spencer HJ, Winkler HJ et al. IgG anticardiolipin antibody titer >40 GPL and the risk of subsequent thrombo-occlusive events and death. Stroke 1997; 28: 1660–1665.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Rosove MH, Brewer PMC. Antiphospholipid thrombosis:clinical course after the first thrombotic event in 70 patients. Ann Intern Med 1992; 117: 303–308.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Triplett DA, Brandt JT, Musgrave KA, Orr CA. The relationship between lupus anticoagulants and antibodies to phospholipids. JAMA 1988; 259: 550–554.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Levine SR, Brey RL, Salowich-Palm L, Sawaya KL, Haystad S. Antiphospholipid antibody associated stroke: prospective assessment of recurrent event risk. Stroke 1993; 24: 188–204.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Alarcon-Segovia D, Deleze M, Oria CV et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies and the antiphospholipid syndrome in systemic lupus erythematosus: a prospective analysis of 500 consecutive patients. Medicine 1989; 68: 353–365.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Escalante A, Brey RL, Mitchell BD, Dreiner U. Accuracy of anticardiolipin antibodies in identifying a history of thrombosis among patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. A, J Med 1995; 98: 559–567.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Nojima J, Suehisa E, Akita N, Toku M, Fushimi R, Tada H et al. Risk of arterial thrombosis in patients with anticardiolipin antibodies and lupus anticoagulant. Br J Haematol 1997; 96: 447–450.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Verro P, Levine SR, Tietjen GE. Cerebrovascular ischemic events with high positive anticardiolipin antibodies. Stroke 1995; 26: 160.

    Google Scholar 

  35. Inanc M, Radway-Bright EL, Isenberg DA. Beta-2-glycoprotein 1 and anti-beta-2-glycoprotein I antibodies: where are we now? Br J Rheumatol 1997; 36: 1247–1257.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Sammaritano LR, Ng S, Sobel R, Kong Lo S, Simantov R, Furie R et al. Anticardilipin subclass: association of IgG2 with arterial and/or venous thrombosis. Arthritis Rheumatol 1998; 1998–2006.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Vasquez-Mellado J, Llorente L, Richaud-Patin Y, Alarcon-Segovia D. Exposure of anionic phospholipids upon platelet activation permits binding of beta-2-glycoprotein 1 and through it that of IgG antiphospholipid antibodies. J Autoimmunity 1994; 7: 335–348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Specker Ch, Rademacher J, Sohngen D, Sitzer M, Janda I, Siebler M et al. Cerebral microemboli in patients with antiphospholipid syndrome. Lupus 1997; 6: 638–644.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Specker C, Perniok A, Brauchmann W, Siebler M, Schneider M. Detection of cerebral microemboli in APS-Introducing a novel investigation method and implications of analogies with carotid artery disease. Lupus 1998; 7 (Suppl 2): 75–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  40. Duhaut P, Berruyer M, Pinede L, Demolombe-Rague S, Loire R, Seydoux D et al. Anticardiolipin antibodies and giant cell arteritis: a prospective, multicenter case-control study. Arthritis Rheumatol 1998; 41: 701–709.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Drouvalakis KA, Buchanan TTC. Phospholipid specificity of autoimmune and drug induced lupus anticoagulants; association of phosphatidylethanolamine reactivity with thrombosis in autoimmune disease. J Rheumatol 1998; 25: 290–295.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Carhuapoma JR, Mitsias P, Levine SR. Cerebral venous thrombosis and anticardiolipin antibodies. Neurology 1997; 28: 2363–2369.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Descheins M-A, Conard J, Horellou MH, Ameri A, Preter M, Chendru F et al. Coagulations studies, factor V Leiden, and anticardiolipin antibodies in 40 cases of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis. Stroke 1996; 27: 1724–1730.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  44. Coull BM, Goodnight, SH. Antiphospholipid antibodies, prethrombotic states, and stroke. Stroke 1990; 21: 1370–1374.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Mikdashi JA, Kay GG. Neurocognitive deficits in antiphospholipid syndrome. Neurology 1996; 46: A359 (June).

    Google Scholar 

  46. Van Horn G, Arnett FC, Dimachkie MM. Reversible dementia and chorea in a young woman with the lupus anticoagulant. Neurology 1996; 46: 1566–1603.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Denburg SD, Carbotte, RM, Ginsberg, JS, Denburg, JA. The relationship of antiphospholipid antibodies to cognitive function in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 1997; 3: 377–386.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Hanly JG, Hong C, Smith S, Fisk JD. A prospective analysis of cognitive function and anticardiolipin antibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1999; 42: 728–734.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Long AA, Denburg SD, Carbotte RM, Singal DP, Denburg JA. Serum lymphocytotoxic antibodies and neurocognitive function in systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis 1990; 49: 249–253.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Menon S, Jameson-Shortall E, Newman SP, Hall-Craggs MR, Chinn R, Isenberg DA. A longitudinal study of anticardiolipin antibody levels and cognitive functioning in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1999; 42: 735–741.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Denburg SD, Carbotte, RM, Denburg, JA. Cognition and mood in systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1997; 823: 45–59.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Lezak MD. Neuropsychological assessment, 3rd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998; 18.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Spreen O, Strauss E. A compendium of neuropsychological tests: administration, norms, and cornmentary (Chapter 8 ). New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Schmidt R, Auer-Grumbach P, Fazekas F, Offenbacher H, Kapeller P. Anticardiolipin antibodies in normal subjects. Neuropsychological correlates and MRI findings. Stroke 1995; 26: 749–754.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Kalashnikova LA, Nasonov EL, Kushekbaeva AE, Gracheva LA. Anticardiolipin antibodies in Sneddon’s syndrome. Neurology 1990; 40: 464–467.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Zelzer B, Sepp N, Stockhammer G, Dosch E, Hilty E, Offner D et al. Sneddon;s syndrome; A long term follow-up of 21 patients. Arch Dermatol 1993; 129: 437–444.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Tourbah A, Peitte JC, Iba-Zizen MT, Lyon-Caen O, Godeau P, Frances C. The natural course of cerebral lesions in sneddon syndrome. Arch Neurol 1997; 54: 53–60.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Sneddon IB. Cerebral vascular lesions in livedo reticularis. Br J Dermatol 1965; 77: 180–185.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Coull BM, Bourdette DN, Goodnight SH, Briley DP, Hart R. Multiple cerebral infarctions and dementia associated with anticardiolipin antibodies. Stroke 1987; 18: 1107–1112.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Chinnery PF, Shaw PI, Ince PG, Jackson GH, Bishop RI. Fulminant encephalopathy due to the catastrophic primary antiphospholipid syndrome. J Neurol 1997; Neurosurg Psych 62: 300–301.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. de Moerloose P, Boehlen F, Reber G. Prevalence of anticardiolipin and antinuclear antibodies in an elderly hospitalized population and mortality after a 6-year follow-up. Age Ageing 1997; 319–321.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Cesbron J-Y, Amouyel Ph, Masy E. Anticardiolipin antibodies and physical disability in the elderly. Ann Intern Med 1997; 126: 1003.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Carbotte RM, Denburg, SD, Denburg, JA. Prevalence of cognitive impairment in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Nery Mental Dis 1986; 174: 357–364.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Wolkowitz OM, Reus VI, Weingartner, H, Thompson K, Breier A, Doran A, et al. Cognitive effects of corticosteroids. Am J Psychiatry. 1990; 147: 1297–1303.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Wolkowitz OM, Reus VI, Canick J, Levin B, Lupien S. Glucocorticoid medication, memory and steroid psychosis in medical illness. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1997; 823: 81–96.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Keenan PA, Jacobson MW, Soleymani RM, Mayes MD, Stress ME, Yaldoo DT. The effect on memory of chronic Prednisone treatment in patients with systemic disease. Neurology 1996; 47: 1396–1402.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Ling MHM, Perry PH, Tsuang MT. Psychiatric side effects of corticosteroid therapy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1981; 38: 471–477.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  68. Schwartz M, Rochas M, Weller B, Sheinkman A, Tal I, Golan D et al. High association of anticardiolipin antibodies with psychosis. J Clin Psychiatry 1998; 59: 20–23.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. West SG, Emlen W, Wener MH, Kotzin BL. Neuropsychiatric lupus erythematosus: a 10-year experience on the value of diagnostic tests. Am J Med 1995; 99: 153–163.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Tietjen GE, Day M, Norris L, Aurora S, Halvorsen A, Schultz L et al. Role of anticardiolipin antibodies in young persons with migraine and transient focal neurologic events. Neurology 1998; 50: 1433–1440.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Tietjen GE, Levine SR, Brown E et al. Factors which predict antiphospholipid immuno-reactivity in young people with focal neurologic deficits. Arch Neurol 1993; 50: 833–836.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Silvestrini M, Matteis M, Troisi E, Cupini LM, Zaccari G, Bernardi G. Migrainous stroke and the antiphospholipid antibodies. Eur Neurol 1994; 34: 316–319.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Herranz MT, Rivier G, Khamashta MA, Blaser KU, Hughes GRV. Association between antiphospholipid antibodies and epilepsy in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum 1994; 37: 586–571.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  74. Inzelberg R, Korczyn AD. Lupus anticoagulant and late onset seizures. Acta Neurol Scand 1989; 79: 114–118.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Formiga F, Mitjavila F, Pac M, Moga I. Epilepsy and antiphospholipid antibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus patients. Lupus 1997; 6: 486.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  76. Verrot D, San-Marco M, Dravet C et al. Prevalence and significance of antinuclear and anticardiolipin antibodies in patients with epilepsy. Am J Med 1997; 103: 33–37.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Liou HH, Wang CR, Chou HC et al. Anticardiolipin antisera from lupus patients with seizures reduce a GABA receptor-medicated chloride current in snail neurons. Life Sci 1994; 54: 1119–1125.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Cervera R, Asherson RA, Font J, Tikly M, Pallares L, Chamorro A et al. Chorea in the antiphospholipid syndrome: clinical, radiologic, and immunologic characteristics of 50 patients from our clinics and recent literature. Medicine 1997; 76: 203–212.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Asherson RA, Hughes GRV. Antiphospholipid antibodies and chorea. J Rheumatol 1988; 15: 377–379.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Hatron PY, Bouchez B, Wattel A et al. Chorea, systemic lupus erythematosus, circulating lupus anticoagulants. J Rheumatol 1987; 14: 991–993.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Furie R, Ishikawa T, Dhawan V, Eidelberg D. Alternating hemichorea in primary antiphospholipid syndrome: evidence for contralateral striatal metabolism. Neurology 1994; 44: 2197–2199.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Sunden-Cullberg J, Tedroff J, Aquilonius S-M. Reversible chorea in primary antiphospholipid syndrome. Movement Dis 1998; 13: 147–149.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Harris EN, Gharavi AE, Mackworth CG et al. Lupoid sclerosis: a possible pathogenic role for antiphospholipid antibodies. Ann Rheum Dis 1985; 44: 281–283.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Lavalle C, Pizarro S, Drenkard C et al. Transverse myelitis: a manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus associated with antiphospholipid antibodies. J Rheumatol 1990; 17: 34–37.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Ruiz-Arguelles GJ, Guzman-Ramos J, Flores-Flores J, Garay-Martinez J. Refractory hiccough heralding transverse myelitis in the primary antiphospholipid syndrome. Lupus 1998; 7: 49–50.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Jackson C, Brey RL, Barohn R et al. Anticardiolipin antibodies in Guillain-Barré Syndrome. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1992; 10: 657.

    Google Scholar 

  87. Harris EN, Englert H Derue G et al. Antiphospholipid antibodies in acute guillain-barre syndrome. Lancet 1983; 2: 1361–1362.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Shigeta H, Yamaguchi M, Nakano K, Obayashi H, Takemura R, Fukui M et al. Serum autoantibodies against sulfatide and phospholipid in NIDDM patients with diabetic neuropathy. Diabetes Care 1997; 20: 1896–1899.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Toubi E, Ben-David J, Kessel A, Podoshin L, Golan TD. Autoimmune aberration in sudden sensorineural hearing loss: association with anticardiolipin antibodies. Lupus 1997; 6: 540–542.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Naarendorp M, Spiera H. Sudden sensorineural hearing loss in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus or lupus-like syndromes and antiphospholipid antibodies. J Rheumatol 1998; 25: 589–592.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Montalban J, Arboix A, Staub H, Barquinero J, Marti-Vilalta J, Codina A et al. Transient global amnesia and antiphospholipid antibodies. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1989; 7: 85–87.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Rafuse PE, Canny CLB. Initial identification of antinuclear antibody-negative systemic lupus erythematosus on ophthalmic examination: a case report with discussion of the ocular significance of anticardiolipin (antiphospholipid) antibodies. Can J Ophthalmol 1992; 27: 189–193.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Labutta RJ. Ophthalmic manifestations in the antiphospholipid syndrome. In: Asherson RA, Cervera R, Piette JC, Shoenfeld Y, editors. The antiphospholipid syndrome. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1996; 213–218.

    Google Scholar 

  94. Molad Y, Sidi Y, Gornish M et al. Lupus anticoagulant: correlation with magnetic resonance imaging of brain lesions. J Rheumatol 1992; 19: 556–561.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Provenzale JM, Heinz ER, Ortel TL, Macik BG, Charles LA, Alberts MJ. Antiphospholipid antibodies in patients without systemic lupus erythematosus: neuroradiologic findings. Radiology 1994; 192: 531–537.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Toubi E, Khamashta MA, Panarra A, Hughes GRV. Association of antiphospholipid antibodies with central nervous system disease in systemic lupus erythematosus. Am J Med 1995; 99: 397–401.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Sailer M, Burchert W, Ehrenheim C, Smid HGOM, Haas J, Wildhagen K et al. Positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance imaging for cerebral involvement in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus, J Neurol 1997; 244: 186–193.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Hachulla E, Michon-Pasturel U, Leys D, Pruvo J-P, Queyrel V, Masy E et al. Cerebral magnetic imaging in patients with or without antiphospholipid antibodies. Lupus 1998; 7: 124–131.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Deschiens MA, Conrad J, Horellou MH, Ameri A, Preter M, Chendru F et al. Coagulations studies, factor V Leiden, and anticardiolipin antibodies in 40 cases of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis. Stroke 1996; 27: 1724–1730.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Brey RL, Levine SR. Treatment of neurologic complications of the antiphospholipid syndrome. Lupus 1996; 5: 473–476.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors
  1. M. G. Navarrete
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. R. L. Brey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. S. R. Levine
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Lupus Research Unit, St Thomas’ Hospital, Lambeth Palace Road, SE1 7EH, London, UK

    M. A. Khamashta MD, MRCP, PhD (Deputy Head) (Deputy Head)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2000 Springer-Verlag London

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Navarrete, M.G., Brey, R.L., Levine, S.R. (2000). Cerebral Disease in the Antiphospholipid Syndrome. In: Khamashta, M.A. (eds) Hughes Syndrome. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-3666-8_5

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-3666-8_5

  • Publisher Name: Springer, London

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-85233-232-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4471-3666-8

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation