Skip to main content
Log in

Early brain injury and plasticity: Reorganization and functional Recovery

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Translational Neuroscience

Abstract

One of the most remarkable observations in developmental neuroscience is the plasticity of the developing brain. Although recent findings suggest that the developing brain possesses substantial compensatory potential, the mechanisms of reorganization and its limitations remain largely unknown. This review includes studies elucidating the complexities of brain reorganization in response to early brain injury. It describes the factors influencing the pattern and degree of brain plasticity, provides insight into the patterns of reorganization in different brain systems and offers guidelines for clinicians in the field of neurorehabilitation. This knowledge is crucial in clinical work when designing the appropriate type and timing of interventions for children with early brain injuries

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Condic M. L., Regeneration and Repair, In Rao M.H., Jacobson M. (Eds.), Developmental Neurobilogy, 4th ed., Kluwer Academic Publishers, New York 2005.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Johnston M. V., Clinical disorders of brain plasticity, Brain. Dev., 2004, 26(2), 73–80

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Johnston M. V., Nishimura A., Harum K., Pekar J., Blue M.E., Sculpting the developing brain, Adv. Pediatr., 2001, 48, 1–38

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Rakić P., Radial unit hypothesis of neocortical expansion, Novartis Found. Symp., 2000, 228, 30–42

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Johnston M. V., Plasticity in the developing brain: Implications for rehabilitation, Dev. Disabil. Res. Rev., 2009, 15, 94–101

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Huttenlocher P. R., Dabholkar A.S., Regional differences in synaptogenesis in human cerebral cortex, J. Comp. Neurol., 1997, 387, 167–178

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Kartje G. L., Schwab M., Axonal Growth in the Adult Mammalian Nervous System: Regeneration and Compensatory Plasticity. In: Siegel G.M.D., Albers W.R., Scott B, Price D. (Eds.), Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular and Medical Aspects, 7th ed., American Society for Neurochemistry, Elsevier, 2006

  8. Duffau H., New insights into functional mapping in cerebral tumor surgery: study of the dynamic interactions between the lesion and the brain, 1st ed., Nova Science Publishers, New York, 2008

    Google Scholar 

  9. Aram D., Enkleman B., Cognitive profiles of children with early onset unilateral lesions, Dev. Neuropsychol., 1986, 2, 155–172

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Dennis M., Capacity and strategy for syntactic comprehension after left or right hemidecortication, Brain Lang., 1980, 10, 287–317

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Kennard M., Age and other factors in motor recovery from precentral lesions in monkeys, Am. J. Physiol., 1936, 115, 138–146

    Google Scholar 

  12. Kennard M., Relation of age to motor impairment in man and in subhuman primates, Arch. Neurol. Psychiatry, 1940, 44, 377–397

    Google Scholar 

  13. Giza C., Prins M., Is being plastic really fantastic? Mechanisms of altered plasticity after developmental traumatic brain injury, Dev. Neurosci., 2006, 28, 364–379

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Hebb D., The effects of early and late injury upon test scores, and the nature of normal adult intelligence, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 1942, 85, 275–292

    Google Scholar 

  15. Hebb D., The organisation of behaviour. Psychology Press, New edition ed., East Sussex, 2002

  16. Kolb B., Pellis S., Robinson T., Plasticity and functions of the orbitalfrontal cortex, Brain. Cogn., 2004, 55, 104–115

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Vargha-Khadem F., Isaacs E., Papaleloudi H., Polkey C., Wilson J., Development of intelligence and memory in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy, Brain, 1992, 115, 315–329

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Meeks J., Jennekens-Schnikel A., van Schooneveld M.M.J., Recovery after childhood traumatic brain injury: Vulnerability and plasticity, Pediatric., 2006, 117: 2330

    Article  Google Scholar 

  19. Chapman S. B, McKinnon L., Discussion of developmenal plasticity: Factors affecting cognitive outcome after pediatric traumatic brain injury, J. Commun. Disord., 2000, 33, 333–344

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Chugani H. T., Muller R.A., Chugani D.C., Functional brain reorganization in children, Brain Dev., 1996, 18, 347–356

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Dennis M., Language and the young damaged brain. In: Boll T., Bryant B. (Eds), Clinical neuropsychology and brain function: Research, measurement and practice, 1st ed., American Psychological Association, Washington 1989

    Google Scholar 

  22. Johnson M., Sensitive periods in functional brain development: Problems and prospects, Dev. Psychobiol., 2005, 46, 287–292

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Thomas M.S.C., Johnson M.H., New advances in understanding sensitive periods in brain development. Curr. Direct. in Psychology. Sci., 2008, 17, 1–5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Chapman S. B., Culhane K.A., Levin H.S., Harward H., Mendelsohn D., Ewing-Cobbs L., et al., Narrative discourse after closed head injury in children and adolescents, Brain Lang., 1992, 43, 42–65

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Chapman S. B., Levin H.S., Matejka J., Harward H., Kufera J.A., Discourse ability in children with brain injury: Consideration of linguistic, psychosocial, and cognitive factors, J Head Trauma Rehab., 1995, 10, 36–54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  26. Chapman S. B., Levin H., Wanek A., Weyrauch J., Kufera J., Discourse after closed head injury in young children: Relation of age to outcome. Brain Lang., 1998, 61, 420–449

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Levin H. S., Culhane K.A., Mendelsohn D., Lilly M.A., Bruce D., Fletcher J.M., et al., Cognition in relation to magnetic resonance imaging in head-injured children and adolescents, Arch. of Neurol., 1993, 50, 897–905

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Chapman S.B., Discourse as an outcome measure in pediatric head injured patients. In: Broman S., Michel M.E., (Eds.), Consequences of Traumatic Head Injury in Children: Variability in Short and Long Term Outcomes, 1st ed., Oxford Press, New York 1995.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Levin H. S., Song J., Ewing-Cobbs L., Chapman S.B., Mendelsohn D., Word fluency in relation to severity of closed head injury, associated frontal brain lesions, and age at injury in children. Neuropsychologia, 2001, 39(2), 122–131

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Gogtay N., Giedd J.N., Lusk L., Dynamic mapping of human cortical development during childhood throughearly adulthood. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 2004, 101, 8174–79

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Kolb B., Gibb R., Brain plasticity and recovery from early cortical injury, Dev. Psychobiol., 2007, 49, 107–18

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Banich M. T., Levine S.C., Kim H., Huttenlocher P., The effects of developmental factors on IQ in hemiplegic children, Neuropsychologia, 1990, 28, 35–47

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Anderson V., Spencer-Smith M., Coleman L., Anderson P., Williams J., Greenham M., et al., Children’s executive functions: Are they poorer after very early brain insult?, Neuropsychologia, 2010, 48, 2041–2050

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Westmacott R., Askalan R., Macgregor D., Anderson P., Deveber G., Cognitive outcome following unilateral arterial ischaemic stroke in childhood: effects of age at stroke and lesion location, Dev. Med. Child Neurol., 2010, 52, 386–393

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Holmström L., Vollmer B., Tedroff K., Islam M., Persson J.K., Kits A., et al., Hand function in relation to brain lesions and corticomotorprojection pattern in children with unilateral cerebral palsy, Dev. Med. Child Neurol., 2010, 52, 145–152

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Riva D., Cazzaniga L., Late effects of unilateral brain lesions sustained before and after age one, Neuropsychologia, 1986, 24, 423–428

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Goodman R., Yude C., IQ and its predictors in childhood hemiplegia, Dev. Med. Child Neurol., 1996, 38, 881–890

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Pfefferbaum A., Mathalon D.H., Sullivan E.V., Rawles J.M., Zipursky R.B., Lim K.O., A quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study of changes in brain morphology from infancy to late adulthood, Arch. Neurol., 1994, 51, 874–887

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Kostović I., Petanjek Z., Developmental reorganization of the human cerebral cortex, Paediatr. Croat., 2007, 51(Supl 1), 93–98

    Google Scholar 

  40. Anderson V., Spencer-Smith M., Leventer R., Childhood brain insult: can age at insult help us predict outcome?, Brain, 2009, 132, 45–56

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Staudt M., Gerloff C., Grodd W., Holthausen H., Niemann G., Kragelöh-Mann I., Reorganisation in congenital hemiparesis acquired at different gestational ages, Ann. Neurol., 2004, 56, 854–863

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Carr L. J., Harrison L.M., Evans A.L., Stephens J.A., Patterns of central motor reorganisation in hemiplegic cerebral palsy, Brain, 1993, 116, 1223–1247

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Feys H., Eysenn M., Jaspers E., Klingels K., Desloovere K., Molenares G., et al., Relation between neuroradiological findings and upper limb function in hemiplegic cerebral palsy, Eur. J. Paediatr. Neurol., 2010, 14, 169–177

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Payne B. R., Lomber S.G., Plasticity of the visual cortex after injury: What’s different about the young brain?, Neuroscience, 2002, 8(2), 174–185

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Bates E., Vicari S., Trauner D., Neural mediation of language development: perspectives from lesion studies of infants and children, In: Tager-Flusberg H., (Ed.), Neurodevelopmental disorders, 1st ed., MIT Press, Cambridge, 1999

    Google Scholar 

  46. Chilosi A. M., Cipriani P., Pecini C., Acquired focal brain lesions in childhood: effects on development and reorganization of language. Brain Lang., 2008, 106, 211–225

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Lidzba K., Staudt M., Development and reorganization of language after early brain lesions: capacities and limitation of early brain plasticity, Brain Lang., 2008, 106, 165–166

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Dennis M., Developmental plasticity in children: the role of biological risk, development, time, and reserve, J. Commun. Disord., 2000, 33, 321–331

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Stiles J., Reilly J., Paul B., Moses P., Cognitive development following early brain injury: evidence for neural adaptation, Trends in Cogn. Neurosci., 2005, 9(3), 136–143

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Eyre J. A., Corticospinal tract development and its plasticity after perinatal injury, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 2007, 31, 1136–1149

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Eyre J. A., Developmental aspects of corticospinal projections, In: Eisen A. (Ed.), Clinical Neurophysiology of Motor Neuron Diseases, 1st ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2004

    Google Scholar 

  52. Martin J., The corticospinal system: from development to motor control, The Neuroscientist, 2005, 11, 161–173.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Chen R., Cohen L.G., Hallett M., Nervous system reorganization following injury, Neuroscience, 2002, 111(4), 761–777

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Staudt M., Brain plasticity following early life brain injury, Semin. Perinatol., 2010, 34, 87–92

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Eyre J. A., Smith M., Dabydeen I., Clowry G.J, Petacchi E., Battini R., et al, Is hemiplegic cerebral palsy equivalent to amblyopia of the corticospinal system?, Ann. Neurol., 2007, 62, 493–503

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Maegaki Y., Maeoka Y., Ishii S., Shiota M., Takeuchi A., Yoshino K., et al., Mechanisms of central motor reorganization in pediatric hemiplegic patients, Neuropediatrics, 2002, 28, 168–174

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Cao Y., Vikingstad E.M., Huttenlocher P.R., Towle V.L., Levin D.N., Functional magnetic resonance studies of the reorganization of the human hand sensorimotor area after unilateral brain injury in the perinatal period, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1991, 91, 9612–9616

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Eyre J., Taylor J., Villagra F., Smith M., Miller S., Evidence of activity-dependent withdrawal of corticospinal projections during human development, Neurology, 2001, 57, 1543–1554

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Martin J.H., Lee S.J., Activity-dependent competition between developing corticospinal terminations, NeuroReport, 1999, 10, 2277–2282

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  60. Martin J.H., Kably B., Hacking A., Activity-dependent development of cortical axon terminations in the spinal cord and brain stem, Exp. Brain Res., 1999, 125, 184–199

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Salimi I., Martin J., Rescuing transient corticospinal terminations and promoting growth with corticospinal stimulation in kittens, J. Neurosci., 2004, 24, 4952–4961

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Staudt M., Grodd W., Gerloff C., Erb M., Stitz J, Kragelöh-Mann, Two types of ipsilateral reorganization in congenital hemiparesis: a TMS and fMRI study, Brain, 2002, 125, 2222–2237

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Kostović I., Judaš M., Correlation between the sequential ingrowth of afferents and transient patterns of cortical lamination in preterm infants, Anat. Rec., 2002, 267, 1–6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Wilke M., Staudt M., Juenger H., Grodd W., Braun C., Kragelöh-Mann I., Somatosensory system in two types of motor reorganization in congenital hemiparesis: topographyand function, Hum. Brain Mapp., 2009, 30, 776–788

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Guzzetta A., Bonani P., Biagi L., Tosetti M., Montanaro D., Guerrini R., et al., Reorganisation of the somatosensory system after early brain damage, Clin. Neurophysiol., 2007, 118, 1110–1121

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Rasmussen T., Milner B., The role of early left-brain injury in determining lateralization of cerebral speech functions, Ann. NY Acad. Sci., 1977, 299, 355–369

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  67. Tillema J. M., Byars A.W., Jacola L.M., Schapiro M.B., Schmithorst V.J., Szaflarski J.P., Cortical reorganization of language functioning following perinatal left MCA stroke, Brain Lang., 2008, 105, 99–111

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Liégeois F., Connelly A., Baldeweg T., Vargha-Khadem F., Speaking with a single cerebral hemisphere: fMRI language organization after hemispherectomy in childhood, Brain Lang., 2008, 106, 195–203

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Staudt M., Grodd W., Niemann G., Wildgruber D., Erb M., Kragelöh-Mann I., Early left periventricular brain lesions induce right hemispheric organization of speech, Neurology 2001, 57, 122–125

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Staudt M., Reorganization of the developing human brain following periventricular white matter lesions, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 2007, 31, 1150–1156

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Thal D. J., Early lexical development in children with focal brain injury, Brain Lang., 1991, 40, 491–527

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Giedd J., Blumenthal J., Jeffries N., Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study, Nature Neurosci., 1999, 2, 861–863

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Anderson V., Catroppa C., Morse S., Haritou F., Rosenfeld J., Recovery of intellectual ability following TBI in childhood: impact of injury severity and age at injury, Pediatr. Neurosurg., 2000, 32, 282–290

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Lidzba K., Staudt M., Wilke M., Kragelöh-Mann I., Visuospatial deficits in patients with early left-hemispheric lesions and functional reorganization of language: consequence of lesion or reorganization?, Neuropsychologia, 2006, 44, 1088–1094

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Teuber H. L., Recovery of function after brain injury in man, In: Porter R., Fitzimons D.W. (Ed.), Outcome of Severe Damage to the Central Nervous System, Giba Foundation Symposium 34, Elsevier, Amsterdam 1975, 159–190

    Google Scholar 

  76. Carlsson G., Uvebant P., Hugdahl K., Arvidson J., Wiklund L.M., von Wendt L., Verbal and non-verbal function of children with right-versus left-hemiplegic cerebral palsy of pre- and perinatal origin, Dev. Med. Child Neurol., 1994, 36, 503–512

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Kragelöh-Mann I., Imaging of early brain injury and cortical plasticity, Exp. Neurol., 2004, 190, 84–90

    Article  Google Scholar 

  78. Pavlova M., Staudt M., Sokolov A., Birbaumer N., Kragelöh-Mann I., Perception and production of biological movement in patients with early periventricular brain lesions, Brain, 2003, 126, 692–701

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Kostović I., Rakić P., Developmental history of transient subplate zone in the visual and somatosensory cortex of the macaque monkey and human brain, J. Comp. Neurol., 1990, 297, 441–470

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Kolb B., Brain plasticity and behavior, Lawrence Erlbaum Assocates Publishers, Mahwah, New Jersy, 1995

    Google Scholar 

  81. Luciana M., Cognitive development in children born preterm: Implications for theories of brain plasticity following early injury, Dev. Psychopathol., 2003, 15, 1017–1047

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Ballantyne A. O., Spilkin A.M., Hesselink J., Trauner D.A., Plasticity in the developing brain: intellectual, language and academic functions in children with ischaemic perinatal stroke, Brain, 2008, 131, 2975–2985

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. Gonzalez-Monge S., Boudia B., Ritz A., Abbas-Chorfa F., Rabilloud M., Iwaz J., et al., A 7-year longitudinal follow up of intellectual development in children with congenital hemiplegia, Dev. Med. Child Neurol., 2009, 51, 959–967

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Als H., Duffy F.H., McAnulty G.B., Rivkin M.J., Vajapeyam S., Mulkern R.V., et al., Early experience alters brain function and structure, Pediatrics, 2004, 113, 846–857

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  85. Briones T. L., Therrien B., Mtzger B., Effects of environment on enhancing functional plasticity following cerebral ischemia, Biol. Res. Nurs., 2000, 4(1), 299–309

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. Trachtenberg J. T., Chen B.E., Knott G.W., Long-term in vivo imaging of experience-dependent synaptic plasticity in adult cortex, Nature, 2002, 420, 788–794

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. Perez M. A., Lungholt B.K., Nyborg K., Motor skill training induces changes in the excitability of the leg cortical area in healthy humans, Exp. Brain Res., 2004, 159, 197–205

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Holmes J. M., Repka M.X., Kraker R.T., The treatment of amblyopia, Strabismus, 2006, 14, 37–42

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Recanzone G. H., Merzenich M.M., Jenkins W.M., Grajski K.A., Dinse H.R., Topographic reorganization of the hand representation in cortical area 3b owl monkeys trained in a frequency-discrimination task, J. Neurophysiol., 1992, 67, 1031–1056

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Wang X., Merzenich M.M., Sameshima K., Jenkins W.M., Remodelling of hand representation in adult cortex determined by timing of tactile stimulation, Nature, 1995, 378, 71–75

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Kurz M. J., Wislon T.W., Neuromagnetic activity in the somatosensory corticies of children with cerebral palsy, Neurosci. Lett., (in press), DOI: 10.1016/2010.11.053

  92. Badr K. L., Garg M., Kamth M., Intervention for infants with brain injury: results of a randomized controlled study, Infant Beh. Dev., 2006, 29, 80–90

    Article  Google Scholar 

  93. Bachy-Rita P., Theoretical basis for brain plasticity after a TBI, Brain Inj., 2003, 17(8), 643–651

    Article  Google Scholar 

  94. Tranel D., Eslinger P.J., Effects of early onset brain injury on the development of cognition and behavior: introduction to the special issue, Dev. Neuropsychol., 2000, 3, 273–280

    Article  Google Scholar 

  95. Eyre J. A., Miller S., Clowry G.J., Conway E.A., Watts C., Functional corticospinal projections are established prenatally in the human foetus permitting involvement in the development of spinal motor centres, Brain, 2000, 123, 51–64

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. de Graaf-Peters V. B., Hadders-Algra M., Ontogeny of the human central nervous system: What is happening when?, Early Hum. Dev., 2006, 82, 257–266

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Judaš M., Šimić G., Petanjek Z., Jovanov-Milošević N., Pletikos M., Vasung L., et al., Zagreb collection of human brains: Unique, versatile but underexploited added value resource for neuroscience community, Ann. NY Acad. Sci., (in press)

  98. Kostović I., Judaš M., Transient patterns of cortical lamination during prenatal life: Do they have implications for treatment? Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 2007, 31, 1157–1168

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. Blau-Hospers C., Hadders-Algra M., A systematic review of the effects of early intervention on motor development, Dev. Med. Child Neurol., 2005, 47, 421–432

    Article  Google Scholar 

  100. Weinstock M., Alterations induced by gestational stress in brain morphology and behaviour of the offspring, Prog. Neurobiol., 2001, 65, 427–451

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Levine S. C., Kraus R., Alexander E., Suriyakham L.W., Huttenlocher P.R., IQ decline following early unilateral brain injury: A longitudinal study, Brain Cogn., 2005, 59, 114–123

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. Seghier M. L., Huppi P.S., The role of functional magnetic resonance imaging in the study of brain development, injury and recovery in the newborn, Semin. Perinatol., 2009, 10, 79–86

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ana Katušić.

About this article

Cite this article

Katušić, A. Early brain injury and plasticity: Reorganization and functional Recovery. Translat.Neurosci. 2, 33–42 (2011). https://doi.org/10.2478/s13380-011-0006-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/s13380-011-0006-5

Keywords

Navigation