Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Treatment of Anxiety and Depression in Transplant Patients

Pharmacokinetic Considerations

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Clinical Pharmacokinetics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Depressive and anxiety disorders appear during the transplant process due to psychological stressors, medications and physiological disturbances. Treatment is necessary to prevent impact on patient compliance, morbidity and mortality. Psychotropic medications provide an effective option, although most are only available as oral formulations. Because of this, they are more susceptible to alterations in pharmacokinetic behaviour arising from organ dysfunction in the pretransplant period. Kinetics are also an issue when considering potential drug-drug interactions before and after transplantation.

Prior to transplant, organ dysfunction can change the pharmacokinetic behaviour of some psychotropic agents, requiring adjustment of dosage and schedules. Thoracic or abdominal organ failure may reduce drug absorption through disturbances in intestinal motility, perfusion and function. Cirrhotic patients experience increased drug bioavailability due to portosystemic shunting, and thus dosage is adjusted downward. In contrast, dosage needs to be raised when peripheral oedema expands the drug distribution volume for hydrophilic and protein-bound agents. Drug clearance for most psychotropic medications is dependent upon hepatic metabolism, which is often disrupted by endstage organ disease. Selection of drugs or their dosage may need to be adjusted to lower the risk of drug accumulation. Further adjustments in dosage may be called for when renal failure accompanies thoracic or abdominal organ failure, resulting in further impairment of clearance.

Studies regarding the treatment of anxiety and depressive disorders in the medically ill are limited in number, but recommendations are possible by review of clinical and pharmacokinetic data. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors are well tolerated and efficacious for depression, panic disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder. Adjustments in dosage are required when renal or hepatic impairment is present. Among them, Citalopram and escitalopram appear to have the least risk of drug-drug interactions. Paroxetine has demonstrated evidence supporting its use with generalised anxiety disorder. Venlafaxine is an alternative option, beneficial in depression, post-traumatic stress and generalised anxiety disorders. Nefazodone may also be considered, but there is some risk of hepatotoxicity and interactions with immunosuppressant drugs. Mirtazapine still needs to be studied further in anxiety disorders, but can be helpful for depression accompanied by anorexia and insomnia. Bupropion is effective in the treatment of depression, but data are sparse about its use in anxiety disorders. Psychostimulants are a unique approach if rapid onset of antidepressant action is desired. Acute or short-term anxiolysis is obtained with benzodiazepines, and selection of particular agents entails consideration of distribution rate, half-life and metabolic route.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Table I
Table II
Table III
Table IV
Table V
Table VI
Table VII

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Crone CC, Wise TN. Psychiatric aspects of transplantation: part II, preoperative issues. Crit Care Nurse 1999; 19: 51–63

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Colon EA, Popkin MK. Anxiety and panic. In: Wise MG, Rundell JR, editors. The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of consultation-liaison psychiatry: psychiatry in the medically ill. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc 2002: 393–415

    Google Scholar 

  3. Rouchell AM, Pounds R, Tierney JG. Depression. In: Wise MG, Rundell JR, editors. The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of consultation-liaison psychiatry: psychiatry in the medically ill. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing Inc, 2002: 307–38

    Google Scholar 

  4. Beliles KE. Psychopharmacokinetics in the medically ill. In: Stoudemire A, Fogel BS, Greenberg DB, editors. Psychiatric care of the medical patient. New York (NY): Oxford, 2000: 373–394

    Google Scholar 

  5. Olyaei AJ, De Mattos AM, Bennett WM. Prescribing drugs in renal disease. In: Brenner BM, editor. The kidney. 6th ed. Philadelphia (PA): Saunders, 2000: 2606–53

    Google Scholar 

  6. Beliles K, Stoudemire A. Psychopharmacologic treatment of depression in the medically ill. Psychosomatics 1998; 39: S2–S19

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Levy NB. Psychopharmacology in patients with renal failure. Int J Psychiatry Med 1990; 20: 325–34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Mann HJ, Fuhs DW, Cerra FB. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in critically ill patients. World J Surg 1987; 11: 210–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Maher JF. Pharmacokinetics in patients with renal failure. Clin Nephrol 1984; 21: 39–46

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Kappel J, Calissi P. Nephrology: 3, safe drug prescribing for patients with renal insufficiency. CMAJ 2002 Feb 19; 166: 473-7

  11. Matzke GR, Frye RF. Drug administration in patients with renal insufficiency: minimizing renal and extrarenal toxicity. Drug Saf 1997; 16: 205–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Maher JF. Pharmacokinetic alterations with renal failure and dialysis. In: Chernow B, editor. The pharmacologic approach to the critically ill patient. 2nd ed. Baltimore (MD): Williams & Wilkins, 1988: 47–68

    Google Scholar 

  13. Talbert RL. Drug dosing in renal insufficiency. J Clin Pharmacol 1994; 34: 99–110

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Rubey RN, Lydiard RB. Pharmacologic treatment of anxiety in the medically ill patient. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry 1999; 4: 133–47

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Matzke GR, Frye RF. Drug administration in patients with renal insufficiency. Drug Saf 1997; 16: 205–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Reichen J. Prescribing in liver disease. J Hepatol 1997; 26 Suppl. 1: 36–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Rodighiero V. Effects of liver disease on pharmacokinetics: an update. Clin Pharmacokinet 1999; 37: 399–431

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Verbeeck RK, Horsmans Y. Effects of hepatic insufficiency on pharmacokinetics and drug dosing. Pharm World Sci 1998; 20: 183–92

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Arns PA, Wedlund PJ, Branch RA. Adjustment of medications in liver failure. In: Chernow B, editor. The pharmacologic approach to the critically ill patient. 2nd ed. Baltimore (MD): Williams & Wilkins, 1988: 85–111

    Google Scholar 

  20. Morgan DJ, McLean AJ. Clinical pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic considerations in patients with liver disease: an update. Clin Pharmacokinet 1995; 29: 370–91

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Adedoyin A, Branch RA. Pharmacokinetics. In: Zakim D, Boyer TD, editors. Hepatology: a textbook of liver disease. 3rd ed. Philadelphia (PA): Saunders, 1996: 307–22

    Google Scholar 

  22. Breimer DD. Pharmacokinetics in liver disease. Pharm Weekbl Sci 1987; 9: 79–84

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Secor JW, Schenker S. Drug metabolism in patients with liver disease. Adv Intern Med 1987; 32: 379–406

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Westphal JF, Brogard JM. Drug administration in chronic liver disease. Drug Saf 1997; 17: 47–73

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Huet PM, Villeneuve JP, Fenyves D. Drug elimination in chronic liver diseases. J Hepatol 1997; 26 Suppl. 2: 63–72

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Sonne J, Anderson PB, Loft S, et al. Glucuronidation of oxazepam is not spared in patients with hepatic encephalopathy. Hepatology 1990; 11: 951–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Massie BM. Pathophysiology of heart failure. In: Goldman L, Bennett JC, editors. Cecil textbook of medicine. 21st ed. Philadelphia (PA): Saunders, 2000: 207–14

    Google Scholar 

  28. Williams RL, Benet LZ. Drug pharmacokinetics in cardiac and hepatic disease. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1980; 20: 389–413

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Shammas FV, Dickstein K. Clinical pharmacokinetics in heart failure: an update review. Clin Pharmacokinet 1988; 15: 94–113

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Benowitz NL, Meister W. Pharmacokinetics in patients with cardiac failure. Clin Pharmacokinet 1976; 1: 389–405

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Savage RW, Blair TP. Alterations in pharmacology caused by congestive heart failure in the critically ill patient. In: Chernow B, editor. The pharmacologic approach to the critically ill patient. 2nd ed. Baltimore (MD): Williams & Wilkins, 1988: 69–84

    Google Scholar 

  32. Barre J, Houin G, Brunner F, et al. Disease-induced modifications of drug pharmacokinetics. Int J Clin Pharm Res 1983; 3: 215–26

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Brater DC, Vasko MR. Pharmacokinetics. In: Chernow B, editor. The pharmacologic approach to the critically ill patient. 2nd ed. Baltimore (MD): Williams & Wilkins, 1988: 1–20

    Google Scholar 

  34. Di Martini AF, Trzepacz PT. Psychopharmacologic issues in organ transplantation. In: Fukinishi I, Matsushita M, editors. Cutting-edge medicine and liaison psychiatry: psychiatric problems of organ transplantation. Proceedings of the 13th Toyko Institute of Psychiatry International Symposium; 1998 Sep 29–30; Toyko

  35. Watson CB. Adjustment of medications in pulmonary failure. In: Chernow B, editor. The pharmacologic approach to the critically ill patient. 2nd ed. Baltimore (MD): Williams & Wilkins, 1988: 112–30

    Google Scholar 

  36. Rey E, Treluyer JM, Pons G. Drug disposition in cystic fibrosis. Clin Pharmacokinet 1998; 35: 313–29

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Craven J. Psychiatric aspects of lung transplant: the Toronto Lung Transplant Group. Can J Psychiatry 1990; 35: 759–64

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. von Ammon Cavanaugh S. Depression in the medically ill: critical issues in diagnostic assessment. Psychosomatics 1995; 36: 48–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Hinrichsen G, Lieberman J, Pollack S, et al. Depression in hemodialysis patients. Psychosomatics 1989; 30: 284–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Rochat B, Amey M, Baumann P. Analysis of enantiomers of Citalopram and its demethylated metabolites in plasma of depressive patients using chiral reverse-phase liquid chromatography. Ther Drug Monit 1995; 17: 273–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. von Moltke L, Greenblatt D, Grassi J, et al. Citalopram and desmethylcitalopram in vitro: human cytochromes mediating transformation and cytochrome inhibitory effects. Biol Psychiatry 1999; 46: 839–49

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Rochat B, Amey M, Gillet M, et al. Identification of three cytochrome P450 isoenzymes involved in N-demethylation of Citalopram enantiomers in human liver microsomes. Pharmacogenetics 1997; 7: 1–10

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Baumann P, Larsen F. The pharmacokinetics of Citalopram. Rev Contemp Pharmacother 1995; 6: 287–95

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Kragh-Sorensen P, Overo K, Petersen O, et al. The kinetics of Citalopram: single and multiple dose studies in man. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol 1981; 48(1): 53–60

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Baumann P. Pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of Citalopram and other SSRIs. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1996; 11(1): 5–11

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Greenblatt D, von Moltke L, Harmatz J, et al. Human cytochromes and some newer antidepressants: kinetics, metabolism, and drug interactions. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1999; 19(1): 23–35

    Article  Google Scholar 

  47. Beliles K. Alternate routes of administration of psychotropic agents. In: Stoudemire A, Fogel B, Greenberg D, editors. Psychiatric care of the medical patient. New York (NY): Oxford University Press, 2000: 395–405

    Google Scholar 

  48. Joffe P, Larsen F, Pedersen V, et al. Single-dose pharmacokinetics of Citalopram in patients with moderate renal insufficiency or hepatic cirrhosis compared with healthy subjects. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1998; 54: 237–42

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Spigset O, Hagg S, Stegmayr B, et al. Citalopram pharmacokinetics in patients with chronic renal failure and the effect of haemodialysis. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2000; 56: 699–703

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Priskorn M, Sidhu J, Larsen F, et al. Investigation of multiple dose Citalopram on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of racemic warfarin. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1997; 44: 199–202

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  51. Forest Pharmaceuticals Inc. Celexa® (Citalopram): prescribing information. St Louis: Forest Pharmaceuticals Inc., 2002 Aug

  52. Owens M, Knight D, Nemeroff C. Second-generation SSRIs: human monoamine transporter binding profile of escitalopram and R-flkuoxetine. Biol Psychiatry 2001; 50(5): 345–50

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Bauman P, Aullino D, Eap C. Enantiomers’ potential in psychopharmacology: a critical analysis with special emphasis on the antidepressant escitalopram. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2002; 12: 433–44

    Article  Google Scholar 

  54. Wade A, Lemming O, Bang Hedegaard K. Escitalopram 10 mg/day is effective and well tolerated in a placebo-controlled study in depression in primary care. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2002; 17: 95–102

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Von Moltke L, Greenblatt D, Giancarlo G, et al. Eescitalopram (S-citalopram) and its metabolites in vitro: cytochromes mediating biotransormation, inhibitory effects, and comparison to R-citalopram. Drug Metab Disp 2001; 29: 1102–9

    Google Scholar 

  56. Guiterrez M, Rosenberg J, Abramowitz W. An evaluation of the potential for pharmacokinetic interaction between escitalopram and the cytochrome P450 3A4 inhibitor ritonavir. Clin Ther 2003; 25: 1200–10

    Article  Google Scholar 

  57. Burke W. Escitalopram. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2002; 11: 1477–86

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Waugh J, Goa K. Escitalopram: a review of its use in the management of major depressive and anxiety disorder. CNS Drugs 2003; 17(5): 343–62

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  59. Svensson S, Mansfield P. Escitalopram: superior to Citalopram or a chiral chimera?. Psychother Psychosom 2004; 73: 10–6

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Murdoch D, McTavish D. Sertraline: a review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic potential in depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Drugs 1992; 44: 604–24

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Warrington S. Clinical implications of the pharmacology of sertraline. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1991; 6(2): 11–21

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Warrington S, Ronfeld R, Wilner K, et al. Human pharmacokinetics of sertraline [letter]. Clin Neuropharmacol 1992; 15(1): 54

    Google Scholar 

  63. Ozdemir V, Naranjo C, Herrmann N, et al. The extent and determinants of changes in CYP2D6 and CYP1A2 activities with therapeutic doses of sertraline. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1998; 18: 55–61

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Crewe H, Lennard M, Tucker G, et al. The effect of selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors on cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) activity in human liver microsomes. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1992; 34: 262–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Sprouse J, Clarke T, Reynolds L, et al. Comparison of the effects of sertraline and its metabolite, desmethylsertraline, on blockade of central 5-HT reuptake in vivo. Neuropsychopharmacology 1996; 14: 225–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Kurz D, Bergstrom R, Goldberg M, et al. The effect of sertraline on the pharmacokinetics of desipramine and imipramine. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1997; 62: 145–56

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Preskorn S, Alderman J, Greenblatt D, et al. Sertraline does not inhibit cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A mediated drug metabolism in vivo. Biol Psychiatry 1997; 42 Suppl.: 45

    Article  Google Scholar 

  68. Schwenk M, Verga M, Wagner J. Hemodialyzability of sertraline. Clin Nephrol 1995; 44: 121–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Wilner K, Baris B, Foulds G. Multiple dose pharmacokinetics of sertraline in subjects with varying degrees of renal impairment. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 1996; 6 Suppl.: 41

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Demolis J, Angebaud P, Grange J, et al. Influence of liver cirrhosis on sertraline pharmacokinetics. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1996; 42: 394–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  71. Rapeport W, Coates P, Dewland P, et al. Absence of a sertraline-mediated effect on digoxin pharmacokinetic and electrocardiographic findings. J Clin Psychiatry 1996; 57 Suppl. 1: 16–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  72. Ziegler M, Wilner K. Sertraline does not alter the beta-adrenergic blocking activity of atenolol in healthy male volunteers. J Clin Psychiatry 1996; 57 Suppl. 1: 12–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Wilner K, Lazar J, Apseloff G, et al. The effects of sertraline on the pharmacodynamics of warfarin in healthy volunteers. Biol Psychiatry 1991; 29: 354–5

    Google Scholar 

  74. Calhoun J, Calhoun D. Prolonged bleeding time in a patient treated with sertraline [letter]. Am J Psychiatry 1996; 153: 443

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Dechant K. Paroxetine: a review. Drugs 1991; 41: 226–53

    Google Scholar 

  76. Lane R. Pharmacokinetic drug interaction potential of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1996; 11 Suppl. 5: 31–61

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Sindrup S, Brosen K, Gram L. Pharmacokinetics of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor paroxetine: nonlinearity and relation to the sparteine oxidation polymorphism. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1992; 51: 288–95

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Jeppesen U, Gram L, Vistisen K, et al. Dose-dependent inhibition of CYP1A2, CYP2C19 and CYP2D6 by Citalopram, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine and paroxetine. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1996; 51: 73–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. De Vane C. Metabolism and pharmacokinetics of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Cell Mol Neurobiol 1999; 19: 443–66

    Article  Google Scholar 

  80. Doyle G, Laher M, Kelly J, et al. The pharmacokinetics of paroxetine in renal impairment. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 1989; 350: 89–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Krastev Z, Terziivanov D, Vlahov V, et al. The pharmacokinetics of paroxetine in patients with liver cirrhosis. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 1989; 350: 91–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  82. Dalhoff K, Almdal T, Bjerrum K, et al. Pharmacokinetics of paroxetine in patients with cirrhosis. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1991; 41: 351–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Bannister S, Houser V, Hulse J, et al. Evaluation of the potential interactions of paroxetine with diazepam, Cimetidine, warfarin, and digoxin. Acta Psychiatr Scand Suppl 1989; 350: 102–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Gram L. Fluoxetine. N Engl J Med 1994; 331: 1354–61

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Wong D, Bymaster F, Reid L, et al. Inhibition of serotonin uptake by optical isomers of fluoxetine. Drug Dev Res 1985; 6: 397–403

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Hamelin B, Turgeon J, Vallee F, et al. The disposition of fluoxetine but not sertraline is altered in poor metabolizers of debrisoquin. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1996; 60: 512–21

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  87. von Moltke L, Greenblatt D, Duan S, et al. Human cytochromes mediating N-demethylation of fluoxetine in vitro. Psychopharmacology 1997; 132: 402–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  88. Harvey A, Preskorn S. Fluoxetine pharmacokinetics and effect on CYP2C19 in young and elderly volunteers. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2001; 21: 161–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  89. Riesenman C. Antidepressant drug interactions and the cytochrome P450 system: a critical appraisal. Pharmacotherapy 1995; 15: 84–99

    Google Scholar 

  90. Altamura A, Moro A, Percudani M. Clinical pharmacokinetics of fluoxetine. Clin Pharmacokinet 1994; 26: 201–14

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Benefield P, Heel R, Lewis S. Fluoxetine: a review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic efficacy in depressive illness. Drugs 1986; 32: 481–508

    Article  Google Scholar 

  92. Bergstron R, Lemberger L, Farid N, et al. Clinical pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of fluoxetine: a review. Br J Psychiatry 1988; 153 Suppl. 3: 47–50

    Google Scholar 

  93. Aronoff G, Bergstrom R, Pottratz S, et al. Fluoxetine kinetics and protein binding in normal and impaired renal function. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1984; 36: 138–44

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Bergstrom R, Beasely C, Levy N, et al. The effects of renal and hepatic disease on the pharmacokinetics, renal tolerance, and risk-benefit profile of fluoxetine. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1993; 8: 261–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Schenker S, Bergstrom R, Wolen R, et al. Fluoxetine disposition and elimination in cirrhosis. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1988; 44: 353–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Graff D, Williamson K, Pieper J, et al. Effect of fluoxetine on Carvedilol pharmacokinetics, CYP2D6 activity, and autonomic balance in heart failure patients. J Clin Pharmacol 2001; 41: 97–106

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  97. Ring B, Binkley S, Roskos L, et al. Effect of fluoxetine, norfluoxetine, sertraline, and desmethylsertraline on human CYP3A catalyzed 1-hydroxy midazolam formation in vitro. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1995; 275: 1131–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  98. Azaz-Livshits T, Danenberg H. Tachycardia, orthostatic hypotension and profound weakness due to concomitant use of fluoxetine and nifedipine. Pharmacopsychiatry 1997; 30: 274–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Lemberger L, Bergstrom R, Wolen R, et al. Fluoxetine: clinical pharmacology and physiological disposition. J Clin Psychiatry 1985; 46: 14–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Pai V, Kelly M. Bruising associated with the use of fluoxetine. Ann Pharmacother 1996; 30: 786–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  101. Bondurant T, Darrell M, Asyouty S, et al. The effect of fluoxetine on prothrombin time [letter]. Psychosomatics 1998; 39: 296–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  102. Van Harten J. Overview of the pharmacokinetics of fluvoxamine. Clin Pharmacokinet 1995; 29 Suppl. 1: 1–9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Spigset O, Carleborg L, Hedenmalm K, et al. Effect of cigarette smoking on fluvoxamine pharmacokinetics in humans. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1995; 58: 399–403

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  104. Brosen K, Skielbo E, Rasmussen B, et al. Fluvoxamine is a potent inhibitor of cytochrome P4501A2. Biochem Pharmacol 1993; 45: 1211–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Wang J, Backman J, Wen X, et al. Fluvoxamine is a more potent inhibitor of lidocaine metabolism than ketoconazole and erythromycin in vitro. Pharmacol Toxicol 1999; 85: 201–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  106. Overmars H, Scherpenisse P, Post L. Fluvoxamine maleate: metabolism in man. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 1983; 8: 269–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  107. De Vries M, Raghoebar M, Mathlener I, et al. Single and multiple oral dose fluvoxamine kinetics in young and elderly subjects. Ther Drug Monit 1992; 14: 291–6

    Google Scholar 

  108. Spigset O, Granberg K, Hagg S, et al. Non-linear fluvoxamine disposition. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1998; 45: 257–63

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  109. Benfield P, Ward A. Fluvoxamine: a review of its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic efficacy in depressive illness. Drugs 1986; 32: 313–34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. Ciaassen V. Review of the animal pharmacology and pharmacokinetics of fluvoxamine. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1983; 15 Suppl. 3: 349–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  111. van Harten J, Duchier J, Devissaguet J, et al. Pharmacokinetics of fluvoxamine maleate in patients with liver cirrhosis after single-dose oral administration. Clin Pharmacokinet 1993; 24: 177–82

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Dahl M, Voortman G, Alm C, et al. In vitro and in vivo studies on the disposition of mirtazapine in humans. Clin Drug Invest 1997; 13: 37–46

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Stromer E, von Moltke L, Shader R, et al. Metabolism of the antidepressant mirtazapine in vitro: contribution of cytochromes P-450 1A2, 2D6, and 3A4. Drug Metab Dispos 2000; 28: 1168–75

    Google Scholar 

  114. Timmer J, Sitsen J, Delbressine L. Clinical pharmacokinetics of mirtazapine. Clin Pharmacokinet 2000; 38: 461–74

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. Delbressine L, Vos R. The clinical relevance of preclinical data: mirtazapine, a model compound. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1997; 17 Suppl. 1: 29–34

    Article  Google Scholar 

  116. Sitsen J, Zivkov M. Mirtazapine: clinical profile. CNS Drugs 1995; 4 Suppl.: 39–48

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Timmer C, Lohmann A, Mink C. Pharmacokinetic dose-proportionality study at steady state of mirtazapine from Remeron tablets. Hum Psychopharmacol 1995; 10 Suppl.: 97–106

    Article  Google Scholar 

  118. Voortman G, Paanakker J. Bioavailabilty of mirtazapine from Remeron tablets after single and multiple oral dosing. Hum Psychopharmacol 1995; 10 Suppl.: 83–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  119. Bengtsson F, Hoglund P, Timmer C, et al. Mirtazapine oral single dose kinetics in patients with different degrees of renal failure. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp 1998; 13: 357–65

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Murdoch D, Ashgar J, Ankier S, et al. Influence of hepatic impairment on the pharmacokinetics of single doses of mirtazapine in elderly subjects [abstract]. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1993; 35: 76

    Google Scholar 

  121. Nilsen O, Dale O. A pharmacokinetic study of trazodone in healthy subjects after intravenous, fasted and not fasted oral administration. Pharmacol Toxicol 1992; 71: 150–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  122. Rotzinger S, Fang J, Baker G. Trazodone is metabolized to mchlorophenylpiperazine by CYP3A4 from human sources. Drug Metab Dispos 1998; 26: 572–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  123. Bayer A, Pathy M, Ankier S. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic characteristics of trazodone in the elderly. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1983; 16: 371–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  124. Haria M, Fitton A, McTavish D. Trazodone: a review of its pharmacology, therapeutic use in depression and therapeutic potential in other disorders. Drugs Aging 1994; 4: 331–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  125. Yasui N, Otani K, Kaneko S, et al. Inhibition of trazodone metabolism by thioridazine in humans. Ther Drug Monit 1995; 17: 333–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  126. Doweiko J, Fogel B, Godlberg R. Trazodone and hemodialysis [letter]. J Clin Psychiatry 1984; 45: 361

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  127. Gamble D, Peterson L. Trazodone overdose: four years of experience from voluntary reports. J Clin Psychiatry 1986; 47: 544–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  128. Trujillo T, Nolan P. Antiarrhythmic agents: drug interactions of clinical significance. Drug Saf 2000; 23: 509–32

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  129. Mazur A, Strasberg B, Kusniec J, et al. OT prolongation and polymorphous ventricular tachycardia associated with trazodone-amiodarone combination. Int J Cardiol 1995; 52: 27–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. Small N, Giamonna K. Interaction between warfarin and trazodone. Ann Pharmacother 2000; 34: 734–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  131. Hardy J, Sirois A. Reduction of prothrombin and partial thromboplastin times with trazodone [case report]. CMAJ 1986; 135: 1372

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  132. Eison A, Eison M, Torrente J, et al. Nefazodone: preclinical pharmacology of a new antidepressant. Psychopharmacol Bull 1990; 26: 311–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  133. Mayol R, Cole C, Luke G, et al. Characterization of the metabolites of the antidepressant drug nefazodone in human urine and plasma. Drug Metab Dispos 1994; 22: 304–11

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. De Vane L, Grothe D, Smith S. Pharmacology of antidepressants: focus on nefazodone. J Clin Psychiatry 2002; 63 Suppl.: 10–7

    Google Scholar 

  135. Barbhaiya R, Buch A, Greene D. Single and multiple dose pharmacokinetics of nefazodone in subjects classified as extensive and poor metabolizers of dextromethorphan. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1996; 42: 573–81

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  136. Barbhaiya R, Dandekar K, Greene D. Pharmacokinetics, absolute bioavailability and disposition of [14C]nefazodone in humans. Drug Metab Dispos 1996; 24: 91–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  137. Kaul S, Shukla U, Barbhaiya R. Nonlinear pharmacokinetics of nefazodone after escalating single and multiple oral doses. J Clin Pharmacol 1995; 35: 830–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  138. Bristol-Myers Squibb. Serzone® (nefazodone): prescribing information. Princeton (NJ): Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, 2000

    Google Scholar 

  139. Barbhaiya R, Brady M, Shukla U, et al. Steady state pharmacokinetics of nefazodone in subjects with normal and impaired renal function. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1995; 49: 229–35

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. Barbhaiya R, Shukla U, Greene D. Single-dose pharmacokinetics of nefazodone in healthy young and elderly subjects and in subjects with renal or hepatic impairment. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1995; 49: 221–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  141. Barbhaiya R, Shukla U, Natarajan C, et al. Single-and multiple-dose pharmacokinetics of nefazodone in patients with hepatic cirrhosis. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1995; 58: 390–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  142. Salazar D, Dockens R, Milbrath R, et al. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic evaluation of warfarin and nefazodone coadministration in healthy subjects. J Clin Pharmacol 1995; 35: 730–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. Dockens R, Greene D, Barbhaiya R. Assessment of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic drug interactions between nefazodone and digoxin in healthy male volunteers. J Clin Pharmacol 1996; 36: 160–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  144. Jacobson R, Wang P, Glueck C. Myositis and rhabdomyolysis associated with concurrent use of simvastatin and nefazodone [letter]. JAMA 1997; 277: 296–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. Aranda-Michel J, Koehler A, Bejarano P, et al. Nefazodone-induced liver failure: report of three cases. Arch Intern Med 1999; 130: 285–8

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  146. Lucena M, Andrade R, Gomez-Outes A, et al. Acute liver failure after treatment with nefazodone. Dig Dis Sci 1999; 44: 2577–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  147. Eloubeidi M, Gaede J, Swaim M. Reversible nefazodone-induced liver failure. Dig Dis Sci 2000; 45: 1036–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  148. Golden R, De Vane C, Laizure S, et al. Bupropion in depression: II. the role of metabolites in clinical outcome. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1988; 45: 145–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  149. Ascher J, Cole J, Colin J, et al. Bupropion: a review of its mechanism of antidepressant activity. J Clin Psychiatry 1996; 56: 395–401

    Google Scholar 

  150. Martin P, Massol J, Colin J, et al. Antidepressant profile of bupropion and three metabolites in mice. Pharmacopsychiatry 1990; 23: 187–94

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  151. Armstrong S, Cozza K. Does bupropion inhibit cytochrome P450 2D6?. Psychosomatics 2001; 42: 157–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  152. DeVane L, Nemeroff C. 2002 Guide to psychotropic drag interactions. Primary Psychiatry 2002; 9: 28–57

    Google Scholar 

  153. Hesse L, Venkatakrishnan K, Court M, et al. CYP2B6 mediates the in vitro hydroxylation of bupropion: potential drag interactions with other antidepressants. Drug Metab Dispos 2000; 28: 1176–83

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  154. Pollock B, Sweet R, Kirshner M, et al. Bupropion plasma levels and CYP2D6 phenotype. Ther Drug Monit 1996; 18: 581–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  155. Lai A, Schroeder D. Clinical pharmacokinetics of bupropion: a review. J Clin Psychiatry 1983; 44: 82–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  156. Goodnick P. Pharmacokinetics of second generation antidepressants: bupropion. Psychopharmacol Bull 1991; 27: 513–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  157. Goodnick P, Dominguez R, De Vane L, et al. Bupropion slow-release response in depression: diagnosis and biochemistry.Biol Psychiatry 1998; 44: 629–32

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  158. Sweet R, Pollock B, Kirshner M, et al. Pharmacokinetics of single- and multiple-dose bupropion in elderly patients with depression. J Clin Pharmacol 1995; 35: 876–84

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  159. De Vane L, Laizure C, Stewart J, et al. Disposition of bupropion in healthy volunteers and subjects with alcoholic liver disease. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1990; 10: 328–32

    Google Scholar 

  160. Roose S, Dalack G, Glassman A, et al. Cardiovascular effects of bupropion in depressed patients with heart disease. Am J Psychiatry 1991; 148: 512–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  161. Fogelman S, Schimider J, Venkatakrishnan K, et al. O- and N-demethylation of venlafaxine in vitro by human liver microsomes and by microsomes from cDNA-transfected cells: effect of metabolic inhibitors and SSRI antidepressants. Neuropsychopharmacology 1999; 20: 480–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  162. Otton S, Ball S, Cheung S, et al. Venlafaxine oxidation in vitro is catalysed by CYP2D6. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1996; 41: 149–56

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  163. Amchin J, Zarycranski W, Taylor K, et al. Effect of venlafaxine on the pharmacokinetics of risperidone. J Clin Pharmacol 1999; 39: 297–309

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  164. von Moltke L, Duan S, Greenblatt D, et al. Venlafaxine and metabolites are very weak inhibitors of human cytochrome P450-3A isoforms. Biol Psychiatry 1997; 41: 377–80

    Article  Google Scholar 

  165. Ereshefsky L. Drug-drug interactions involving antidepressants: focus on venlafaxine. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1996; 16 (3 Suppl. 2): 37–53

    Article  Google Scholar 

  166. Artigas F. Selective serotonin/noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs). CNS Drags 1995; 4: 79–89

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  167. Morton W, Soone S, Verga M. Venlafaxine: a structurally unique and novel antidepressant. Ann Pharmacother 1995; 29: 387–95

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  168. Troy S, Schultz R, Parker V, et al. The effect of renal disease on the disposition of venlafaxine. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1994; 56: 14–21

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  169. Wellington K, Perry C. Venlafaxine extended release: a review of its use in the management of major depression. CNS Drags 2001; 15: 543–669

    Google Scholar 

  170. Feighner J. Cardiovascular safety in depressed patients: focus on venlafaxine. J Clin Psychiatry 1995; 56: 574–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  171. Simmer B, Kant R, Zeiler D, et al. Antidepressant efficacy and cardiovascular safety of venlafaxine in young vs old patients with comorbid medical disorders. Int J Psychiatry Med 1997; 27: 353–64

    Article  Google Scholar 

  172. Blythe D, Hackett L. Cardiovascular and neurological toxicity of venlafaxine. Hum Exp Toxicol 1999; 18: 309–13

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  173. Combs A, Peytavin G, Theron D. Conduction disturbances associated with venlafaxine [letter]. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134: 166–7

    Google Scholar 

  174. Partridge S, MacIver D, Solanki T. A depressed myocardium. Clin Toxicol 2000; 38: 453–5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. Thase M. Effects of venlafaxine on blood pressure: a metaanalysis of original data from 3744 depressed patients. J Clin Psychiatry 1998; 59: 502–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. Horsmans Y, De Clercq M, Sempoux C. Venlafaxine-associated hepatitis [letter]. Ann Intern Med 1999; 130: 944

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. Cardona X, Avila A, Castellanos P. Venlafaxine-associated hepatitis [letter]. Ann Intern Med 2000; 132: 417

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  178. American Psychiatric Association. Practice guidelines for the treatment of patients with major depressive disorder (revision). Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157 (11 Suppl.): 1–45

    Google Scholar 

  179. Bodkin J, Kwon A. Selegiline and other atypical monoamine oxidase inhibitors in depression. Psychiatr Ann 2001; 31: 385–91

    Google Scholar 

  180. Mallinger A, Smith E. Pharmacokinetics of monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Psychopharmacol Bull 1991; 27: 493–502

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  181. Volz H, Gleiter C. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors: a perspective on their use in the elderly. Drags Aging 1998; 13: 341–55

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  182. Mallinger A, Edwards D, Himmelhoch J, et al. Pharmacokinetics of tranylcypromine in patients who are depressed: relationship to cardiovascular effects. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1986; 40: 444–50

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  183. Baker G, Urichuk L, McKenna K, et al. Metabolism of monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Cell Mol Neurobiol 1999; 19: 411–26

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  184. Grace J, Kinter M, MacDonald T. Atypical metabolism of deprenyl and its enantiomer, (S)-(+)-N, α-dimethyl-N-propynylphenethylamine, by cytochrome P450 2D6. Chem Res Toxicol 1994; 7: 286–90

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  185. Livingston M, Livingston H. Monoamine oxidase inhibitors: an update on drag interactions. Drug Saf 1996; 14: 219–27

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  186. Brown T, Stoudemire A, Fogel B, et al. Psychopharmacology in the medical patient. In: Stoudemire A, Fogel B, Greenberg D, editors. Psychiatric care of the medical patient. New York (NY): Oxford University Press, 2000: 329–72

    Google Scholar 

  187. Thompson D, DiMartini A. Nonenteral routes of administration for psychiatric medications. Psychosomatics 1999; 40: 185–92

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  188. Rudorfer M, Potter W. Metabolism of the tricyclic antidepressants. Cell Mol Neurobiol 1999; 19: 373–409

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  189. Potter W, Manji H, Rudorfer M. Tricyclics and tetracyclics. In: Schatzberg A, Nemeroff C, editors. Essentials of clinical psychopharmacology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing Inc, 2001: 5–26

    Google Scholar 

  190. Rudorfer M, Potter W. Pharmacokinetics of antidepressants. In: Meltzer H, editor. Psychopharmacology: the third generation of progress. New York (NY): Raven Press, 1987: 1353–63

    Google Scholar 

  191. Sandoz M, Vandel S, Vandel B, et al. Metabolism of amitriptyline in patients with chronic renal failure. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1984; 26: 227–32

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  192. Lieberman J, Cooper T, Suckow R, et al. Tricyclic antidepressant and metabolite levels in chronic renal failure. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1985; 37: 301–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  193. Dawling S, Lynn K, Rosser R, et al. The pharmacokinetics of nortriptyline in patients with chronic renal failure. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1981; 12: 39–45

    Article  Google Scholar 

  194. Forycki Z, Martens F, Thalhofer K. Tranquilizers, analgetics and antidepressants in patients treated with hemodialysis. Blood Purif 1985; 3: 109–19

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  195. Brosen K, Gram L. Quinidine inhibits the 2-hydroxylation of imipramine and desipramine but not demethylation of imipramine. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 189; 37: 155-60

  196. Kaufmann M, Murray G, Cassem N. Use of psychostimulants in medically ill depressed patients. Psychosomatics 1982; 23: 817–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  197. Woods S, Tesar G, Murray G, et al. Psychostimulant treatment of depressive disorders secondary to medical illness. J Clin Psychiatry 1986; 47: 12–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  198. Masand P, Tesar G. Use of stimulants in the medically ill. Psychiatr Clin North Am 1996; 19: 515–47

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  199. Srinivas N, Hubbard J, Quinn D, et al. Enantio-selective pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of dl-threo-methyl-phenidate in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1992; 52: 561–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  200. Wargin W, Patrick K, Kilts C, et al. Pharmacokinetics of methylphenidate in man, rat, and monkey. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1983; 226: 382–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. Angrist B, Corwin J, Bartlik B, et al. Early pharmacokinetics and clinical effects of oral d-amphetamine in normal subjects. Biol Psychiatry 1987; 22: 1357–68

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  202. De Batista C, Lembke A, Solvason HB, et al. A prospective trial of modafinil as an adjunctive treatment of major depression. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2004; 24: 87–90

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  203. Wong Y, Simcoe D, Hartman L, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, ascending-dose evaluation of the pharmacokinetics and tolerability of modafinil tablets in healthy male volunteers. J Clin Pharmacol 1999; 39: 30–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  204. McClellan K, Spencer C. Modafinil: a review of its pharmacology and clinical efficacy in the management of narcolepsy. CNS Drugs 1998; 9: 311–24

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  205. Cox J, Pappagallo M. Modafinil: a gift to portmanteau. Am J Hosp Palliat Care 2001; 18: 408–10

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  206. McCurry L, Cronquist S. Pemoline and hepatoxicity [letter]. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154: 713–4

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  207. Safer D, Zito J, Gardner J. Pemoline hepatoxicity and postmarketing surveillance. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2001; 40: 622–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  208. Shevell M, Schreiber R. Pemoline-associated hepatic failure: a critical analysis of the literature. Pediatr Neurol 1997; 16: 14–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  209. Plutchik L, Synder S, Drooker M, et al. Methylphenidate in post liver transplant patients. Psychosomatics 1998; 39: 118–23

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  210. Wright D, Lake K, Bruhn P, et al. Nefazodone and cyclosporine drug-drug interaction. J Heart Lung Transplant 1999; 18: 913–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  211. Vella J, Sayegh M. Interactions between cyclosporine and newer antidepressant medications. Am J Kidney Dis 1998; 31: 320–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  212. Helms-Smith KM, Curtis SL. Apparent interaction between nefazodone and cyclosporine [letter]. Ann Intern Med 1996; 125: 424

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  213. Lill J, Bauer L, Horn J, et al. Cyclosporine-drug interactions and the influence of patient age. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2000; 57: 1579–84

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  214. Markowitz JS, Gill HS, Hunt NM, et al. Lack of antidepressant-cyclosporine pharmacokinetic interactions. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1998; 18: 91–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  215. Liston H, Markowitz J, Hunt N, et al. Lack of Citalopram effect on the pharmacokinetics of cyclosporine [letter]. Psychosomatics 2001; 42: 370–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  216. Strouse T, Fairbanks L, Skotzko C, et al. Fluoxetine and cyclosporine in organ transplantation. Psychosomatics 1996; 37: 23–30

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  217. Cakaloglu Y, Tredger J, Devlin J, et al. Importance of cytochrome P-450IIIA activity in determining dosage and blood levels of FK506 and cyclosporine in liver transplant recipients. Hepatology 1994; 20: 309–16

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  218. Campo J, Smith C, Perel J. Tacrolimus toxic reaction associated with the use of nefazodone: paroxetine as an alternative agent [letter]. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998; 55: 1050–2

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  219. Olyaei AJ, de Mattos AM, Norman DJ, et al. Interaction between tacrolimus and nefazodone in a stable renal transplant recipient. Pharmacotherapy 1998; 18: 1356–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  220. Yatscoff R. Pharmacokinetics of rapamycin. Transplant Proc 1996; 28: 970–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  221. Zimmerman J, Kahan B. Pharmacokinetics of sirolimus in stable renal transplant patients after multiple oral dose administration. J Clin Pharmacol 1997; 37: 405–15

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  222. Yatscoff R, Wang P, Chan K, et al. Rapamycin: distribution, pharmacokinetics, and therapeutic range investigations. Ther Drug Monit 1995; 17: 666–71

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  223. Lampen A, Ahang Y, Hackbarth I, et al. Metabolism and transport of the macrolide immunosuppressant sirolimus in the small intestine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1998; 285: 1104–12

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  224. Claesson K, Brattstrom C, Burke J. Sirolimus interaction: first report of an interaction with concomitant erythromycin leading to an increased sirolimus concentration [case report]. Transplant Proc 2001; 33: 2136

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  225. Bullingham R, Nicholls A, Kamm B. Clinical pharmacokinetics of mycophenolate mofetil. Clin Pharmacokinet 1998; 34: 429–55

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  226. Trumper A, Appleby L. Psychiatric morbidity in patients undergoing heart, heart and lung, or lung transplantation. J Psychosom Res 2001; 50: 103–5

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  227. Taylor CB. Treatment of anxiety disorders. In: Schatzberg AF, Nemeroff CB, editors. Essentials of clinical psychopharmacology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing Inc, 2001: 431–45

    Google Scholar 

  228. Davis LI, English BA, Ambrose SM, et al. Pharmacotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder: a comprehensive review. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2001; 2: 1583–95

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  229. Chouinard G, Lefko-Singh K, Teboul E. Metabolism of anxiolytics and hypnotics: benzodiazepines, buspirone, zoplicone, and Zolpidem. Cell Mol Neurobiol 1999; 19: 533–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  230. Brown TM, Stoudemire A, Fogel BS, et al. Psychopharmacology in the medically ill. In: Stoudemire A, Fogel BS, Greenberg DB, editors. Psychiatric care of the medical patient. New York (NY): Oxford, 2000: 329–72

    Google Scholar 

  231. Garzone PD, Kroboth PD. Pharmacokinetics of the newer benzodiazepines. Clin Pharmacokinet 1989; 16: 337–64

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  232. Tiula E, Tallgren LG, Neuvonen PJ. Serum protein binding of Phenytoin, diazepam, and propanolol in chronic renal diseases. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther Toxicol 1987; 25: 545–52

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  233. Wagner BKJ, O’Hara DA. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of sedatives and analgesics in the treatment of agitated critically ill patients. Clin Pharmacokinet 1997; 33: 426–53

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  234. Bauer TM, Ritz R, Haberthur C, et al. Prolonged sedation due to accumulation of conjugated metabolites of midazolam. Lancet 1995; 346: 145–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  235. Bouton V, Bourget P, Lesne-Hulin A, et al. Influence of acute renal failure on FPIA rapid serum assay of midazolam and its main metabolite. Int J Clin Pharmacol Ther 1997; 35: 531–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  236. Driessen JJ, Vree TB, Guelen PJM. The effects of acute changes in renal function on the pharmacokinetics of midazolam during long-term infusion in ICU patients. Acta Anaesth Belg 1991; 42: 149–55

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  237. Kyriakopoulos AA, Greenblatt DJ, Shader RI. Clinical pharmacokinetics of lorazepam: a review. J Clin Psychiatry 1978; 10: 16–23

    Google Scholar 

  238. Kraus JW, Desmond PV, Marshall JP, et al. Effects of aging and liver disease on disposition of lorazepam. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1978; 24: 411–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  239. Shull HJ, Wilkinson GR, Johnson R, et al. Normal disposition of oxazepam in acute viral hepatitis and cirrhosis. Ann Intern Med 1976; 84: 420–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  240. Man GCW, Hsu K, Sproule BJ. Effect of alprazolam on exercise and dyspnea in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Chest 1986; 90: 832–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  241. Greene JG, Pucino F, Carlson JD, et al. Effects of alprazolam on respiratory drive, anxiety, and dyspnea in chronic airflow obstruction: a case study. Pharmacotherapy 1989; 9: 34–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  242. Cohn MA, Morris DD, Juan D. Effects of estazolam and flurazepam on cardiopulmonary function in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Drug Saf 1992; 7: 152–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  243. Sen D, Jones G, Leggat PO. The response of the breathless patient treated with diazepam. Br J Clin Pract 1983 Jun; 37(6): 232–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  244. Delpierre S, Jammes Y, Grimaud C, et al. Influence of anxiolytic drugs (prazepam and diazepam) on respiratory center output and CO2 chemosensitivity in patients with lung diseases. Respiration 1981; 42: 15–20

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  245. Beaupre A, Soucy R, Phillips R, et al. Respiratory center output following zopliclone or diazepam administration in patients with pulmonary disease. Respiration 1988; 54: 235–40

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  246. Wedzicha JA, Wallis PJW, Ingram DA, et al. Effect of diazepam on sleep in patients with chronic airflow obstruction. Thorax 1988; 43: 729–30

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  247. Woodcock AA, Gross ER, Geddes DM. Drug treatment of breathlessness: contrasting effects of diazepam and promethazine in pink puffers. BMJ 1981; 283: 343–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  248. Block AH, Dolly FR, Slayton PC. Does flurazepam ingestion affect breathing and oxygenation during sleep in patients with chronic obstructive lung disease?. Am Rev Respir Dis 1984; 129: 230–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  249. Ninan PT, Cole JO, Yonkers KA. Nonbenzodiazepine anxiolytics. 1st ed. In: Schatzberg AF, Nemeroff CB, editors. Essentials of clinical psychopharmacology. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Publishing Inc, 2001: 93–102

    Google Scholar 

  250. Mahmood I, Sahajwalla C. Clinical pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of buspirone, an anxiolytic drug. Clin Pharmacokinet 1999; 36: 277–87

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  251. Apter JT, Allen LA. Buspirone: future directions. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1999; 19: 86–93

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  252. Ninan PT, Cole JO, Yonkers KA. Nonbenzodiazepine anxiolytics. In: Schatzberg AF, Nemeroff CB, editors. Essentials of clinical psychopharmacology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing Inc, 2001: 93–102

    Google Scholar 

  253. Argyropoulou P, Patakas D, Koukou A, et al. Buspirone effect on breathlessness and exercise performance in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Respiration 1993; 60: 216–20

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  254. Alderman CP, Frith PA, Ben-Tovim DI. Buspirone for the treatment of anxiety in patients with chronic obstructive airways disease. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1996; 16: 410–1

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  255. Craven J, Sutherland A. Buspirone for anxiety disorders in patients with severe lung disease [letter]. Lancet 1991; 338: 249

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  256. Singh NP, Despars JA, Stansbury DW, et al. Effects of buspirone on anxiety levels and exercise tolerance in patients with chronic airflow obstruction and mild anxiety. Chest 1993; 103: 800–4

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  257. Caccia S, Vigano GL, Mingardi G, et al. Clinical pharmacokinetics of oral buspirone in patients with impaired renal function. Clin Pharmacokinet 1988; 14: 171–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  258. Barbhaiya RH, Shukla UA, Pfeffer M, et al. Disposition kinetics of buspirone in patients with renal or hepatic impairment after administration of single and multiple doses. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1994; 46: 41–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  259. Dalhoff K, Poulsen HE, Garred P, et al. Buspirone pharmacokinetics in patients with cirrhosis. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1987; 24: 547–50

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  260. Lamberg TS, Rivisto KT, Laitila J, et al. The effect of fluvoxamine on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of buspirone. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1998; 54: 761–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  261. Lamberg TS, Rivisto KT, Neuvonen PJ. Effects of verapamil and diltiazem on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of buspirone. Pharmacol Ther 1998; 63: 640–5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  262. Letterman L, Markowitz JS. Gabapentin: a review of published experience in the treatment of bipolar disorder and other psychiatric conditions. Pharmacotherapy 1999; 19: 565–72

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  263. Pande AC, Davidson JR, Jefferson JW, et al. Treatment of social phobia with gabapentin: a placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1999; 19: 341–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  264. Pollack MH, Methews J, Scott EL. Gabapentin as a potential treatment for anxiety disorders. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155: 992–3

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  265. Brannon N, Labbate L, Huber M. Gabapentin treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder [letter]. Can J Psychiatry 2000 Feb; 45(1): 84

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  266. Hamner MB, Brodrick PS, Labbate LA. Gabapentin in PTSD: a retrospective, clinical series of adjunctive therapy. Ann Clin Psychiatry 2001; 13: 141–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  267. Chouinard G, Beauclair L, Belanger MC. Gabapentin: long-term antianxiety and hypnotic effects in psychiatric patients with comorbid anxiety-related disorders [letter]. Can J Psychiatry 1998; 43: 305

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  268. Hood SD, Argyropoulos SV, Nutt DJ. Agents in development for anxiety disorders: current status and future potential. CNS Drugs 2000; 13: 421–31

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  269. Gallay BJ, DeMattos AM, Norman DJ. Reversible acute renal allograft dysfunction due to gabapentin. Transplantation 2000; 70: 208–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  270. Grunze H, Dittert S, Bungert M, et al. Renal impairment as a possible side effect of gabapentin: a single case report. Neuropsychobiology 1998; 38: 198–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  271. Bourgeois BFD. Pharmacokinetic properties of current antiepileptic drugs: what improvements are needed?. Neurology 2000; 55 Suppl. 3: S11–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  272. Blum RA, Comstock TJ, Sica DA, et al. Pharmacokinetics of gabapentin in subjects with various degrees of renal function. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1994; 56: 154–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  273. Masand PS, Gupta S. Selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors: an update. Harv Rev Psychiatry 1999; 7: 69–84

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  274. Ballenger JC, Davidson JRT, Lecrubier Y, et al. Consensus statement on panic disorder from the International Consensus Group on Depression and Anxiety. J Clin Psychiatry 1998; 59 Suppl. 8: 47–54

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  275. Lecrubier Y, Bakker A, Dunbar G, et al. A comparison of paroxetine, clomipramine and placebo in the treatment of panic disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1997; 95: 145–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  276. Oehrberg PE, Christiansen K, Behnke AL, et al. Paroxetine in the treatment of panic disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Br J Psychiatry 1995; 167: 374–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  277. Ballenger JC, Wheadon DE, Steiner M, et al. Double-blind, fixed-dose, placebo-controlled study of paroxetine in the treatment of panic disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155: 36–42

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  278. Wade AG, Lepola U, Koponen J, et al. The effect of Citalopram in panic disorder. Br J Psychiatry 1997; 170: 549–53

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  279. Lepola UM, Wade AG, Leinonen EV, et al. A controlled, prospective, 1-year trial of Citalopram in the treatment of panic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1998; 59: 528–34

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  280. Pohl RB, Wolkow RM, Clary CM. Sertraline in the treatment of panic disorder: a double-blind multicenter trial. Am J Psychiatry 1998; 155: 1189–95

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  281. Pollack MH, Otto MW, Worthington JJ, et al. Sertraline in the treatment of panic disorder: a flexible-dose multicenter trial. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998; 55: 1010–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  282. Den Boer JA. Pharmacotherapy of panic disorder: differential efficacy from a clinical viewpoint. J Clin Psychiatry 1998; 59 Suppl. 8: 30–6

    Google Scholar 

  283. Gorman JM. Treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2002; 63 Suppl. 8: 17–23

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  284. Pollack MH, Zaninelli R, Goddard A, et al. Paroxetine in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: results of a placebocontrolled, flexible-dosage trial. J Clin Psychiatry 2001; 62: 350–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  285. Rocca P, Fonzo V, Scotta M, et al. Paroxetine efficacy in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1997; 95: 444–50

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  286. Varia I, Rauscher F. Treatment of generalized anxiety disorder with Citalopram. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2002; 17: 103–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  287. Brunello N, Davidson JRT, Deah M, et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder: diagnosis and epidemiology, comorbidity and social consequences, biology and treatment. Neuropsychobiology 2001; 43: 150–62

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  288. Davidson JRT. Recognition and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. JAMA 2002; 286: 584–8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  289. Yehuda R. Post-traumatic stress disorder. N Engl J Med 2002 Jan 10; 346: 108–14

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  290. Hageman I, Andersen HS, Jorgensen MB. Post-traumatic stress disorder: a review of psychobiology and pharmacotherapy. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2001; 104: 411–22

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  291. Martenyi F, Brown EB, Zang H, et al. Fluoxetine versus placebo in post-traumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2002; 63: 199–206

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  292. Connor KM, Sutherland SM, Tupler LA, et al. Fluoxetine in post-traumatic stress disorder: randomized double-blind study. Br J Psychiatry 1999; 175: 17–22

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  293. Stahl SM, Gergel I, Li D. Escitalopram in the treatment of panic disorder: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry 2003; 64: 1322–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  294. Rapaport MH, Endicott J, Clary CM. Posttraumatic stress disorder and quality of life: results across 64 weeks of sertraline treatment. J Clin Psychiatry 2002; 63: 59–65

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  295. Tucker P, Zaninelli R, Yehuda R, et al. Paroxetine in the treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: results of a placebo-controlled, flexible-dosage trial. J Clin Psychiatry 2001; 62: 860–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  296. Stein DJ, Davidson J, Seedat S, et al. Praoxetine in the treatment of post-traumatic stresss disoder: pooled analysis of placebo-controlled studies. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2003; 4: 1829–38

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  297. Brady KT, Clary CM. Affective and axiety comorbidity in posttraumatic stress disorder treatment trials of sertraline. Compr Psychiatry 2003; 44: 360–9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  298. Cross National Collaborative Panic Study, Second Phase Investigators. Drug treatment of panic disorder. Br J Psychiatry 1992; 160: 191–202

    Article  Google Scholar 

  299. Andersch S, Rosenberg NK, Kullingsjo H, et al. Efficacy and safety of alprazolam, imipramine, and placebo in treating panic disorder: a Scandinavian multicenter study. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1991; 365: 18–27

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  300. Caillard V, Rouillon F, Viel JF, et al. Comparative effects of low and high doses of clomipramine and placebo in panic disorder: a double-blind controlled study. French University Antidepressant Group. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1999; 99: 51–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  301. Ribiero L, Busnello JV, Kauer-Sant’Anna M, et al. Mirtazapine versus fluoxetine in the treatment of panic disorder. Braz J Med Biol Res 2001; 34: 1303–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  302. Papp LA, Sinha SS, Martinez JM, et al. Low-dose venlafaxine treatment in panic disorder. Psychopharmacol Bull 1998; 34: 207–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  303. Pollack MH, Worthington JJ, Otto MW, et al. Venlafaxine for panic disorder: results from a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Psychopharmacol Bull 1996; 32: 667–70

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  304. Papp LA, Copian JD, Martinez JM, et al. Efficacy of open-label nefazodone treatment in patients with panic disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2000; 20: 544–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  305. Bystritsky A, Rosen R, Suri R, et al. Pilot open-label study of nefazodone in panic disorder. Depress Anxiety 1999; 10: 137–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  306. Mavissakalian MM, Perel J, Bowler K, et al. Trazodone in the treatment of panic disorder and agorophobia with panic attacks. Am J Psychiatry 1987; 144: 785–7

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  307. Charney DS, Woods SW, Goodman WK, et al. Drug treatment of panic disorder: the comparative efficacy of imipramine, alprazolam, and trazodone. J Clin Psychiatry 1986; 47: 580–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  308. Gelenberg AJ, Lydiard RB, Rudolph RL, et al. Efficacy of venlafaxine extended-release capsules in nondepressed outpatients with generalized anxiety disorder: a 6-month randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2000; 283: 3082–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  309. Rickels K, Pollack MH, Sheehan DV, et al. Efficacy of extended-release venlafaxine in nondepressed outpatients with generalized anxiety disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2000; 157: 968–74

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  310. Davidson JRT, DuPont RL, Hedges D, et al. Efficacy, safety, and tolerability of venlafaxine extended release and buspirone in outpatient with generalized anxiety disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1999; 60: 528–35

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  311. Rolland PD, Kablinger AS, Brannon GE, et al. Treatment of generalized anxiety disorder with venlafaxine XR: a randomized, double-blind trial in comparison with buspirone and placebo. Clin Drug Invest 2000; 19: 163–5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  312. Hedges DW, Reimherr FW, Strong RE, et al. An open trial of nefazodone in adult patients with generalized anxiety disorder. Psychopharmacol Bull 1996; 32: 671–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  313. Rickels K, Downing R, Schweizer E, et al. Antidepressants for the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: a placebo-controlled comparison of imipramine, trazodone, and diazepam. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993; 50: 884–95

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  314. Goodnick PJ, Puig A, DeVane CL, et al. Mirtazapine n major depression with comorbid generalized anxiety disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1999; 60: 446–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  315. Quitkin FM, Taylor BP, Kremer C. Does mirtazapine have a more rapid onset than SSRIs?. J Clin Psychiatry 2001; 62: 358–61

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  316. Hoehn-Saric R. Generalized anxiety disorder: guidelines for diagnosis and treatment. CNS Drugs 1998; 9: 85–98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  317. Gillin JC, Smith-Vaniz A, Schnierow B, et al. An open-label, 12-week clinical and sleep EEG study of nefazodone in chronic combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2001; 62: 789–96

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  318. Zisook S, Chentsova-Dutton YE, Smith-Vaniz A, et al. Nefazodone in patients with treatment-refractory posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2000; 61: 203–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  319. Davis LL, Nugent AL, Murray J, et al. Nefazodone treatment for chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: an open trial. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2000; 20: 159–64

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  320. Hidalgo R, Hertzberg MA, Mellman T, et al. Nefazodone in post-traumatic stress disorder: results from six open label trials. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1999; 14: 61–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  321. Canive JM, Clark RD, Calais LA, et al. Bupropion treatment in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: an open study. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1998; 18: 379–83

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  322. Connor KM, Davidson JRT, Weisler RH, et al. A pilot study of mirtazapine in post-traumatic stress disorder. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 1999; 14: 29–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  323. Hertzberg MA, Feldman ME, Beckham JC, et al. Trial of trazodone for posttraumatic stress disorder using a multiple baseline group design. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1996; 16: 294–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  324. Ballenger JC, Davidson JRT, Lecrubier Y, et al. Consensus statement on posttraumatic stress disorder from the International Consensus Group on Depression and Anxiety. J Clin Psychiatry 2000; 61 Suppl. 5: 60–6

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  325. Davidson JRT. Pharmacotherapy of posttraumatic stress disorder: treatment options, long-term follow up, and predictors of outcome. J Clin Psychiatry 2000; 61 Suppl. 5: 52–6

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  326. Wise MG, Hilty DM, Cerda CM, et al. Delirium. In: Wise MG, Rundell JR, editors. The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of consultation-liaison psychiatry: psychiatry in the medically ill. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing Inc, 2002: 257–72

    Google Scholar 

  327. Crone CC, Wise TN. Psychiatric aspects of transplantation: III. postoperative issues. Crit Care Nurse 1999; 19: 28–38

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  328. Stukas AA, Dew MA, Switzer GE, et al. PTSD in heart transplant recipients and their primary family caregivers. Psychosomatics 1999; 40: 212–21

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  329. Dew MA, Kormos RL, Roth LH, et al. Early post-transplant medical compliance and mental health predict physical morbidity and mortality one to three years after heart transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 1999 Jun; 18(6): 549–62

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  330. Dew MA, Roth LH, Schulberg HC, et al. Prevalence and predictors of depression and anxiety-related disorder during the year after heart transplantation. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 1996; 18 Suppl. 1: 48S–61S

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation of this review. The authors would like to thank Thomas N. Wise, MD and Martha Kackley for their assistance in the preparation of this review. Dr Crone is a member of Pfizer’s Speakers Bureau. The authors have no conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the content of this review.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry, Inova Fairfax Hospital, 3300 Gallows Road, Falls Church, Virginia, 22042, USA

    Catherine C. Crone

  2. Department of Psychiatry, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington DC, USA

    Geoffrey M. Gabriel

Authors
  1. Catherine C. Crone
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Geoffrey M. Gabriel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Catherine C. Crone.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Crone, C.C., Gabriel, G.M. Treatment of Anxiety and Depression in Transplant Patients. Clin Pharmacokinet 43, 361–394 (2004). https://doi.org/10.2165/00003088-200443060-00002

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00003088-200443060-00002

Keywords

Search

Navigation