Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Perceived Exertion

Influence of Age and Cognitive Development

  • Leading Article
  • Published:
Sports Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Because little is known about the effects of aging on perceived exertion, the aim of this article is to review the key findings from the published literature concerning rating of perceived exertion (RPE) in relation to the developmental level of a subject. The use of RPE in the exercise setting has included both an estimation paradigm, which is the quantification of the effort sense at a given level of exercise, and a production paradigm, which involves producing a given physiological effort based on an RPE value.

The results of the review show that the cognitive developmental level of children aged 0–3 years does not allow them to rate their perceived exertion during a handgrip task. From 4 to 7 years of age, there is a critical period where children are able to progressively rate at first their peripheral sensory cues during handgrip tests, and then their cardiorespiratory cues during outdoor running in an accurate manner. Between 8 and 12 years of age, children are able to estimate and produce 2–4 cycling intensities guided by their effort sense and distinguish sensory cues from different parts of their body. However, most of the studies report that the exercise mode and the rating scale used could influence their perceptual responsiveness.

During adolescence, it seems that the RPE-heart rate (HR) relationship is less pronounced than in adults. Similar to observations made in younger children, RPE values are influenced by the exercise mode, test protocol and rating scale. Limited research has examined the ability of adolescents to produce a given exercise intensity based on perceived exertion. Little else is known about RPE in this age group.

In healthy middle-aged and elderly individuals, age-related differences in perceptual responsiveness may not be present as long as variations in cardiorespiratory fitness are taken into account. For this reason, RPE could be associated with HR as a useful tool for monitoring and prescribing exercise. In physically deconditioned elderly persons, a rehabilitation training programme may increase the subject’s ability to detect muscular sensations and the ability to utilise these sensory cues in the perception of effort.

RPE appears to be a cognitive function that involves a long and progressive developmental process from 4 years of age to adulthood. In healthy middle-aged and elderly individuals, RPE is not impaired by aging and can be associated with HR as a useful tool to control exercise intensity. While much is known about RPE responses in 8- to 12-year-old children, more research is needed to fully understand the influence of cognitive development on perceived exertion in children, adolescents and elderly individuals.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Table I
Fig. 1
Table II
Table III
Table IV

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Noble BJ, Robertson RJ. Perceived exertion. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1996

    Google Scholar 

  2. Borg GV. Perceived exertion and pain scales. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1998

    Google Scholar 

  3. Borg GV. Perceived exertion as an indicator of somatic stress. Scand J Rehabil Med 1970; 2: 92–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Williams JG, Eston RG, Furlong B. CERT: a perceived exertion scale for young children. Percept Mot Skills 1994; 79: 1451–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Robertson RJ, Goss FL, Boer NF, et al. Children’s OMNI scale of perceived exertion: mixed gender and race validation. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 452–8

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Utter AC, Robertson RJ, Nieman DC, et al. Children’s OMNI scale of perceived exertion: walking/running evaluation. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34: 139–44

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Robertson RJ, Goss FL, Andreaci JL, et al. Validation of children’s OMNI RPE scale for stepping exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005, 298

    Google Scholar 

  8. Eston RG, Parfitt G, Campbell L, et al. Reliability of effort perception for regulating exercise intensity in children using a Cart and Load Effort Rating (CALER) scale. Pediatr Exerc Sci 2000; 12: 338–97

    Google Scholar 

  9. Yelling M, Lamb KL, Swaine IL. Validity of a pictorial perceived exertion scale for effort estimation and effort production during stepping exercise in adolescent children. Euro Phys Educ Rev 2002; 8: 157–75

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Eston RG, Parfitt G, Shepherd P. Effort perception in children: implications for validity and reliability. In: Papaionnou A, Goudas M, Theodorakis Y, editors. Proceedings of 10th World Congress of Sport Psychology. Vol. 5. 2001 May 28-Jun 2; Skiathos, Greece, 104–6

    Google Scholar 

  11. Groslambert A, Hintzy F, Hoffman MD, et al. Validation of a rating scale of perceived exertion in young children. Int J Sports Med 2001; 22: 116–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Eston RG, Parfitt CG. Perceived exertion. In: Armstrong N, editor. Paediatric Exercise Physiology. London: Elsevier, 2006

    Google Scholar 

  13. Mihevic PM. Sensory cues for perceived exertion: a review. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1981; 13: 150–63

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Ulmer HV. Concept of extracellular regulation of muscular metabolic rate during heavy exercise in humans by psychological feedback. Experientia 1996; 52: 416–20

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Hampson D, Saint Clair Gibson A, Lambert MI, et al. The influence of sensory cues on the perception of exertion during exercise and central regulation of exercise performance. Sports Med 2001; 31: 935–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Robertson RJ, Goss FL, Bell JA, et al. Self-regulated cycling using the children’s OMNI Scale of Perceived Exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34: 1168–75

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Van Den Burg M, Ceci R. A comparison of a psychophysical estimation and a production method in a laboratory and in a field condition. In: Borg G, Ottoson D, editors. The perception of effort in physical work. London: Macmillon Publisher Inc., 1986: 35–46

    Google Scholar 

  18. Robertson R, Goss R, Auble T, et al. Cross-modal exercise prescription at absolute and relative oxygen uptake using perceived exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1990; 22: 653–9

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Dunbar C, Robertson R, Baun R, et al. The validity of regulating exercise intensity by ratings of perceived exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24: 94–9

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Piaget J. La Psychologie de l’Intelligence. Paris: Armand Colin, 1966

    Google Scholar 

  21. Poortmans J. Recovery in elderly persons. In: Rieu M, Bailliere JB, editors. Recovery and physical aptitudes. Paris: MD Communication, 2001: 77–9

    Google Scholar 

  22. Borg GV, Linderholm H. Perceived exertion and pulse rate during graded exercise in various age group. Acta Med Scand 1967; 472: 194–204

    Google Scholar 

  23. Miller GD, Bell RD, Collis ML, et al. The relationship between perceived exertion and heart rate of post 50 year-old volunteers in two different walking activities. J Hum Mov Stud 1985; 11: 187–95

    Google Scholar 

  24. Boutcher SH. Cognitive performance, fitness, and aging. In: Biddle SJH, Fox KR, Boutcher SH, editors. Physical activity and psychological well-being. London: Routledge, 2000: 118–30

    Google Scholar 

  25. Chodzko-Zazko WJ, Moore KA. Physical fitness and cognitive functioning in aging. Exerc Sports Sci Rev 1994; 22: 195–222

    Google Scholar 

  26. Defrasne E. Developmental study of hand grip and perceived exertion in children [dissertation in French]. Besançon: DEA Psychology, University of Franche-Comté, 2003

    Google Scholar 

  27. Groslambert A, Nachon M, Rouillon JD. Influence of the age on self-regulation of static grip forces from perceived exertion values. Neurosci Lett 2002; 325: 52–6

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Groslambert A, Monnier-Benoit P, Grange CC, et al. Self-regulation running by using perceived exertion in 5–7 year old children. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2005; 45: 20–5

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Eston RG, Lamb KL. Effort perception. In: Armstrong N, van Mechelen W, editors. Paediatric exercise science and medicine. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000: 85–91

    Google Scholar 

  30. Bar Or O. Age related changes in exercise perception. In: Borg GV, editor. Physical work and effort. New York: Pergamon Press, 1977: 33–49

    Google Scholar 

  31. Duncan GE, Mahon AD, Gay JA, et al. Physiological and perceptual responses to graded treadmill and cycle exercise in male-children. Pediatr Exerc Sci 1996; 8: 251–8

    Google Scholar 

  32. Mahon AD, Marsh ML. Reliability of rating of perceived exertion relative to ventilatory threshold in children. Int J Sports Med 1992; 13: 567–71

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Mahon AD, Duncan GE, Howe CA, et al. Blood lactate and perceived exertion relative to ventilatory threshold: boys versus men. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997; 29: 1332–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Mahon AD, Gay JA, Stolen KQ. Differentiated ratings of perceived exertion at ventilatory threshold in children and adults. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1998; 78: 115–20

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Lamb KL. Children’s ratings of effort during cycle ergometry and examination of the validity of two effort rating scales. Pediatr Exerc Sci 1995; 7: 107–21

    Google Scholar 

  36. Eston RG, Williams JG. Exercise intensity and perceived exertion in adolescent boys. Br J Sports Med 1986; 20: 27–30

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Alekseev VM. Correlation between heart rate and subjectively perceived exertion during muscular work. Hum Physiol 1989; 15: 39–44

    Google Scholar 

  38. Eakin BL, Finta KM, Serwer GA, et al. Perceived exertion and exercise intensity in children with and without structural heart defects. J Pediatr 1992; 120: 90–3

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Skinner JS, Hustler R, Bergsteinova V, et al. The validity and reliability of a rating scale of perceived exertion. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1973; 5: 97–103

    Google Scholar 

  40. Gamberale F. Perceived exertion, heart rate, oxygen uptake and blood lactate in different work operations. Ergonomics 1972; 15: 545–54

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Robertson RJ, Goss FL, Dubé J, et al. Validation of the adult OMNI scale of perceived exertion for cycle ergometer exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004; 36: 102–8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Lamb KL. Exercise regulation during cycle ergometry using the children’s effort rating table (CERT) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scales. Pediatr Exerc Sci 1996; 8: 337–50

    Google Scholar 

  43. Lamb KL, Eston RG. Effort perception in children. Sports Med 1997; 23: 139–48

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Eston RG, Lamb KL, Williams AM, et al. Validity of a perceived exertion scale for children: a pilot study. Percept Mot Skills 1994; 78: 691–7

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Robertson RJ, Goss FL, Boer N, et al. OMNI scale perceived exertion at ventilatory breakpoint in children: response nor-malized. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33: 1946–52

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Mahon AD, Plank DM, Hipp MJ. The influence of exercise test protocol on perceived exertion at submaximal exercise intensi-ties in children. Can J Appl Physiol 2003; 28: 53–63

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Mahon AD, Ray ML. Ratings of perceived exertion at maximal exercise in children performing different graded exercise test. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1995; 35: 38–42

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Mahon AD, Stolen KQ, Gay JA. Differentiated perceived exer-tion during submaximal exercise in children and adults. Pediatr Exerc Sci 2001; 13: 145–53

    Google Scholar 

  49. Williams JG, Eston RG, Strech C. Use of perceived exertion to control exercise intensity in children. Pediatr Exerc Sci 1991; 3: 21–7

    Google Scholar 

  50. Ward DS, Jackman JD, Galiano FJ. Exercise intensity reproduction: children versus adults. Pediatr Exerc Sci 1991; 3: 209–18

    Google Scholar 

  51. Ueda T, Kurokawa T. Validity of heart rate and ratings of perceived exertion as indices of exercise intensity in a group of children while swimming. Eur J Appl Physiol 1991; 63: 200–4

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Ueda T, Choi TH, Kurokawa T. Ratings of perceived exertion in a group of children while swimming at different temperatures. Ann Physiol Anthropol 1994; 13: 23–31

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Gillach MC, Sallis JF, Buono ML. The relationship between perceived exertion and heart rate in children and adults. Pediatr Exerc Sci 1989; 1: 360–8

    Google Scholar 

  54. Rutkowski J, Robertson RJ, Tseh W, et al. Assessment of RPE signal dominance at slow-to-moderate walking speeds in children using the OMNI perceived exertion scale. Pediatr Exerc Sci 2004; 16: 334–42

    Google Scholar 

  55. Pfeiffer KA, Pivarnik JM, Womack CJ, et al. Reliability and validity of the Borg and OMNI rating of perceived exertion scales in adolescent girls. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34: 2057–61

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Marinov B, Kostianev S, Turnovska T. Ventilatory response to exercise and rating of perceived exertion in two pediatric age groups. Acta Physiol Pharmacol Bulg 2000; 25: 93–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Marinov B, Kostianev S, Turnovska T. Modified treadmill protocol for evaluation of physical fitness in pediatric age group-comparison with Bruce and Balke protocols. Acta Physiol Pharmacol Bulg 2003; 27: 47–51

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Sallis JF. A North American perspective on physical activity research in children and adolescents. In: Blimkie CJR, Bar-Or O, editors. New horizons in pediatric exercise science. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics Publishers Inc., 1995: 221–34

    Google Scholar 

  59. Eston RG. A discussion of the concepts: exercise intensity and perceived exertion with reference to the secondary school. Phys Educ Rev 1984; 7: 19–25

    Google Scholar 

  60. Bar-Or O, Skinner JS, Buskirk ER, et al. Physiological and perceptual indicators of physical stress in 41–60 year-old-men who vary in conditioning level and body fatness. Med Sci Sports 1972; 2: 96–100

    Google Scholar 

  61. Aminoff T, Smolander J, Korhonen O, et al. Physical work capacity in dynamic exercise with differing muscle masses in healthy young and older men. Eur J Appl Physiol 1996; 73: 180–5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Sidney SH, Shephard RJ. Perception of exertion in the elderly, effects of aging, mode of exercise and physical training. Percept Mot Skills 1977; 44: 999–1010

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Ceci R, Hassmen P. Self-monitored exercise at three different intensities in treadmill vs field running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23: 732–8

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  64. Aminoff T, Smolander J, Korhonen O, et al. Cardiorespiratory and subjective responses to prolonged arm and leg exercise in healthy young and older men. Eur J Appl Physiol 1997; 75: 363–8

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Grant S, Corbett K, Davies C, et al. Comparison of physiological responses and rating of perceived exertion in two modes of aerobic exercise in men and women over 50 years of age. Br J Sports Med 2002; 36: 276–80

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  66. Dunbar CC, Kalinski MI. Using RPE to regulate exercise intensity during a 20-week training program for postmenopausal women: a pilot study. Percept Mot Skills 2004; 99: 688–90

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Shigematsu R, Ueno LM, Nakagaichi M, et al. Rate of perceived exertion as a tool to monitor cycling exercise intensity in older adults. J Aging Phys Act 2004; 12: 3–9

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Grange CC, Maire J, Groslambert A, et al. Perceived exertion and rehabilitation with arm crank in elderly patients after total hip arthroplasty: a preliminary study. J Rehabil Res Dev 2004; 41: 611–20

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Fabre C, Chamari K, Mucci P, et al. Improvement of cognitive function by mental and/or individualized aerobic training in healthy elderly subjects. Int J Sports Med 2002; 23: 415–21

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  70. Hughes JR, Crow RS, Jacobs DR, et al. Physical activity, smoking, and exercise induced fatigue. J Behav Med 1984; 7: 217–30

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation of this review. The authors have no conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the content of this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Laboratory of Sport Sciences, FEMTO UFR STAPS de Besançon, place Saint Jacques, Bat. Bichat, 25030, Besançon, France

    Alain Groslambert

  2. Human Performance Laboratory, School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana, USA

    Anthony D. Mahon

Authors
  1. Alain Groslambert
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Anthony D. Mahon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alain Groslambert.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Groslambert, A., Mahon, A.D. Perceived Exertion. Sports Med 36, 911–928 (2006). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200636110-00001

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200636110-00001

Keywords

Search

Navigation