Abstract
Pathologies associated with protein misfolding have been observed in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, metabolic diseases like phenylketonuria, and diseases affecting structural proteins like collagen or keratin. Misfolding of mutant proteins in these and many other diseases may result in premature degradation, formation of toxic aggregates, or incorporation of toxic conformations into structures. We review common traits of these diverse diseases under the unifying view of protein misfolding. The molecular pathogenesis is discussed in the context of protein quality control systems consisting of molecular chaperones and intracellular proteases that assist the folding and supervise the maintenance of the folded structure. Furthermore, genetic and environmental factors that may modify the severity of these diseases are underscored.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Carrell, R. W. and Lomas, D. A. (1997) Conformational disease. Lancet 350, 134–138.
Carrell, R. W. and Lomas, D. A. (2002) Alphal-antitrypsin deficiency—a model for conformational diseases. N. Engl. J. Med. 346, 45–53.
Crowther, D. C. (2002) Familial conformational diseases and dementias. Hum. Mutat. 20, 1–14.
Sorensen, C. B., Ladekjaer-Mikkelsen, A. S., Andresen, B. S., et al. (1999) Identification of novel and known mutations in the genes for keratin 5 and 14 in Danish patients with epidermolysis bullosa simplex: correlation between genotype and phenotype. J. Invest Dermatol. 112, 184–190.
Baum, J. and Brodsky, B. (1999) folding of peptide models of collagen and misfolding in disease. Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol. 9, 122–128.
Burch, M. and Blair, E. (1999) The inheritance of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Pediatr. Cardiol. 20, 313–316.
Monti, P., Campomenosi, P., Ciribilli, Y., et al. (2002) Tumour p53 mutations exhibit promoter selective dominance over wild type p53. Oncogene 21, 1641–1648.
Bross, P., Corydon, T. J., Andresen, B. S., Jørgensen, M. M., Bolund, L., and Gregersen, N. (1999) Protein misfolding and degradation in genetic diseases. Hum. Mutat. 14, 186–198.
Gregersen, N., Bross, P., Andresen, B. S., Pedersen, C. B., Corydon, T. J., and Bolund, L. (2001) The role of chaperone-assisted folding and quality control in inborn errors of metabolism: protein folding disorders. J. Inherit. Metab. Dis. 24, 189–212.
Waters, P. J. (2001) Degradation of mutant proteins, underlying “loss of function” phenotypes, plays a major role in genetic disease. Curr. Issues Mol. Biol. 3, 57–65.
Riordan, J. R. (1999) Cystic fibrosis as a disease of misprocessing of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator glycoprotein. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 64, 1499–1504.
Waters, P. J., Parniak, M. A., Akerman, B. R., and Scriver, C. R. (2000) Characterization of phenylketonuria missense substitutions, distant from the phenylalanine hydroxylase active site, illustrates a paradigm for mechanism and potential modulation of phenotype. Mol. Genet. Metab. 69, 101–110.
Waters, P. J. (2003) How PAH gene mutations cause hyper-phenylalaninemia and why mechanism matters: insights from in vitro expression. Hum. Mutat. 21, 357–369.
Perlmutter, D. H. (1999) Misfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum. Lab. Invest. 79, 623–638.
Gregersen, N., Andresen, B. S., Corydon, M. J., et al. (2001) Mutation analysis in mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation defects: exemplified by acyl-CoA dehydrogenase deficiencies, with special focus on genotype-phenotype relationship. Hum. Mutat. 18, 169–189.
Gregersen, N., Bross, P., and Andresen, B. S. (2004) Genetic defects in fatty acid beta-oxidation and acyl-CoA dehydrogenases. Eur. J. Biochem. 271, 470–482.
Bross, P. and Gregersen, N. (2003) Protein Misfolding and Disease—Principles and Protocols. Humana, Totowa, NJ.
Uversky, V. N. (2002) Natively unfolded proteins: a point where biology waits for physics. Protein Sci. 11, 739–756.
Barral, J. M., Broadley, S. A., Schaffar, G., and Hartl, F. U. (2004) Roles of molecular chaperones in protein misfolding diseases. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 15, 17–29.
Gregersen, N., Bross, P., and Jørgensen, M. M. Chapter 13.1: Protein folding and misfolding: The role of cellular protein quality control systems in inherited disorders. In: MMBID-ONLINE (Scriver, C. R., Beaudet, A. L., Valle, D., Sly, W. S., Vogelstein, B., Childs, B., and Kinzler, K. W., eds.), McGraw-Hill, New York, URL: http://genetics.accessmedicine.com.
Cooper, D. N. and Krawczak, M. (1993) Human Gene Mutation. Bios Scientific Publishers, Ltd., Oxford, UK.
Krawczak, M., Ball, E. V., Fenton, I., et al. (2000) Human gene mutation database—a biomedical information and research resource. Hum. Mutat. 15, 45–51.
Cartegni, L., Chew, S. L., and Krainer, A. R. (2002) Listening to silence and understanding nonsense: exonic mutations that affect splicing. Nat. Rev. Genet. 3, 285–298.
Milewski, M. I., Mickle, J. E., Forrest, J. K., Stanton, B. A., and Cutting, G. R. (2002) Aggregation of misfolded proteins can be a selective process dependent upon peptide composition. J. Biol. Chem. 277, 34462–34470.
Johnston, J. A., Ward, C. L., and Kopito, R. R. (1998) Aggresomes: a cellular response to misfolded proteins. J. Cell Biol. 143, 1883–1898.
Pedersen, C. B., Bross, P., Winter, V. S., et al. (2003) Misfolding, Degradation, and aggregation of variant proteins: the molecular pathogenesis of short chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (SCAD) deficiency. J. Biol. Chem. 278, 47449–47458.
Vladutiu, G. D. (1999) Biochemical and molecular correlations in carnitine palmitoyltransferase II deficiency. Muscle Nerve 22, 949–951.
Sorensen, C. B., Ladekjaer-Mikkelsen, A. S., Andresen, B. S., et al. (1999) Identification of novel and known mutations in the genes for keratin 5 and 14 in Danish patients with epidermolysis bullosa simplex: correlation between genotype and phenotype. J. Invest Dermatol. 112, 184–190.
Dobson, C. M. (2001) The structural basis of protein folding and its links with human disease. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond B Biol. Sci. 356, 133–145.
Wu, Y., Whitman, I., Molmenti, E., Moore, K., Hippenmeyer, P., and Perlmutter, D. H. (1994) A lag in intracellular degradation of mutant alpha 1-antitrypsin correlates with the liver disease phenotype in homozygous PiZZ alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 9014–9018.
Lomas, D. A., Evans, D. L., Finch, J. T., and Carrell, R. W. (1992) The mechanism of Z alpha 1-antitrypsin accumulation in the liver. Nature 357, 605–607.
Perutz, M. F. (1999) Glutamine repeats and neurodegenerative diseases: molecular aspects. Trends Biochem. Sci. 24, 58–63.
Mattson, M. P., Chan, S. L., and Duan, W. (2002) Modification of brain aging and neurodegenerative disorders by genes, diet, and behavior. Physiol. Rev. 82, 637–672.
Taylor, J. P., Hardy, J., and Fischbeck, K. H. (2002) Toxic proteins in neurodegenerative disease. Science 296, 1991–1995.
Zoghbi, H. Y. and Botas, J. (2002) Mouse and fly models of neurodegeneration. Trends Genet. 18, 463–471.
Chiti, F., Taddei, N., Baroni, F., et al. (2002) Kinetic partitioning of protein folding and aggregation. Nat. Struct. Biol. 9, 137–143.
Soto, C. (2001) Protein misfolding and disease; protein refolding and therapy. FEBS Lett. 498, 204–207.
Bucciantini, M., Giannoni, E., Chiti, F., et al. (2002) Inherent toxicity of aggregates implies a common mechanism for protein misfolding diseases. Nature 416, 507–511.
Walsh, D. M., Klyubin, I., Fadeeva, J. V., et al. (2002) Naturally secreted oligomers of amyloid beta protein potently inhibit hippocampal long-term potentiation in vivo. Nature 416, 535–539.
Kayed, R., Head, E., Thompson, J. L., et al. (2003) Common structure of soluble amyloid oligomers implies common mechanism of pathogenesis. Science 300, 486–489.
Teckman, J. H. and Perlmutter, D. H. (2000) Retention of mutant alpha(1)-antitrypsin Z in endoplasmic reticulum is associated with an autophagic response. Am. J. Physiol Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 279, G961-G974.
Earl, R. T., Mangiapane, E. H., Billett, E. E., and Mayer, R. J. (1987) A putative protein-sequestration site involving intermediate filaments for protein degradation by autophagy. Studies with transplanted Sendai-viral envelope proteins in HTC cells. Biochem. J. 241, 809–815.
Weihofen, A., Binns, K., Lemberg, M. K., Ashman, K., and Martoglio, B. (2002) Identification of signal peptide peptidase, a presenilin-type aspartic protease. Science 296, 2215–2218.
Yang, Y., Turner, R. S., and Gaut, J. R. (1998) The chaperone BiP/GRP78 binds to amyloid precursor protein and decreases Abeta40 and Abeta42 secretion. J. Biol. Chem. 273, 25552–25555.
Weber, A. J., Soong, G., Bryan, R., Saba, S., and Prince, A. (2001) Activation of NF-kappaB in airway epithelial cells is dependent on CFTR trafficking and Cl- channel function. Am. J. Physiol Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 281, L71-L78.
Zhao, Q., Wang, J., Levichkin, I. V., Stasinopoulos, S., Ryan, M. T., and Hoogenraad, N. J. (2002) A mitochondrial specific stress response in mammalian cells. EMBO J. 21, 4411–4419.
Uversky, V. N., Lee, H. J., Li, J., Fink, A. L., and Lee, S. J. (2001) Stabilization of partially folded conformation during alpha-synuclein oligomerization in both purified and cytosolic preparations. J. Biol. Chem. 276, 43495–43498.
Beal, M. F. (2000) Energetics in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. Trends Neurosci. 23, 298–304.
Butterfield, D. A. and Kanski, J. (2001) Brain protein oxidation in age-related neurodegenerative disorders that are associated with aggregated proteins. Mech. Ageing Dev. 122, 945–962.
Bence, N. F., Sampat, R. M., and Kopito, R. R. (2001) Impairment of the ubiquitin-proteasome system by protein aggregation. Science 292, 1552–1555.
Imaizumi, K., Miyoshi, K., Katayama, T., et al. (2001) The unfolded protein response and Alzheimer’s disease. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1536, 85–96.
Martindale, J. L. and Holbrook, N. J. (2002) Cellular response to oxidative stress: signaling for suicide and survival. J. Cell Physiol. 192, 1–15.
Hughes, R. E. (2002) Polyglutamine disease: acetyltransferases awry. Curr. Biol. 12, R141-R143.
Schaffar, G., Breuer, P., Boteva, R., et al. (2004) Cellular toxicity of polyglutamine expansion proteins: mechanism of transcription factor deactivation. Mol. Cell 15, 95–105.
Dukan, S., Farewell, A., Ballesteros, M., Taddei, F., Radman, M., and Nystrom, T. (2000) Protein oxidation in response to increased transcriptional or translational errors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97, 5746–5749.
Gamez, A., Perez, B., Ugarte, M., and Desviat, L. R. (2000) Expression analysis of phenylketonuria mutations. Effect on folding and stability of the phenylalanine hydroxylase protein. J. Biol. Chem. 275, 29,737–29,742.
Pind, S., Riordan, J. R., and Williams, D. B. (1994) Participation of the endoplasmic reticulum chaperone calnexin (P88, Ip90) in the biogenesis of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator. J. Biol. Chem. 269, 12784–12788.
Qu, D. F., Teckman, J. H., Omura, S., and Perlmutter, D. H. (1996) Degradation of a mutant secretory protein, alpha(1)- antitrypsin Z, in the endoplasmic reticulum requires proteasome activity. J. Biol. Chem. 271, 22791–22795.
Soti, C. and Csermely, P. (2000) Molecular chaperones and the aging process. Biogerontology 1, 225–233.
Macario, A. J. and Conway de, M. E. (2002) Sick chaperones and ageing: a perspective. Ageing Res. Rev. 1, 295–311.
Slavotinek, A. M. and Biesecker, L. G. (2001) Unfolding the role of chaperones and chaperonins in human disease. Trends Genet. 17, 528–535.
Benndorf, R. and Welsh, M. J. (2004) Shocking degeneration. Nat. Genet. 36, 547–548.
Casari, G., De Fusco, M., Ciarmatori, S., et al. (1998) Spastic paraplegia and OXPHOS impairment caused by mutations in paraplegin, a nuclear-encoded mitochondrial metalloprotease. Cell 93, 973–983.
Hazan, J., Fonknechten, N., Mavel, D., et al. (1999) Spastin, a new AAA protein, is altered in the most frequent form of autosomal dominant spastic paraplegia. Nat. Genet. 23, 296–303.
Hansen, J. J., Dürr, A., Cournu-Rebeix, I., et al. (2002) Hereditary spastic paraplegia SPG13 is associated with a mutation in the gene encoding the mitochondrial chaperonin Hsp60. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 70, 1328–1332.
Atorino, L., Silvestri, L., Koppen, M., et al. (2003) Loss of m-AAA protease in mitochondria causes complex I deficiency and increased sensitivity to oxidative stress in hereditary spastic paraplegia. J. Cell Biol. 163, 777–787.
Litt, M., Kramer, P., LaMorticella, D. M., Murphey, W., Lovrien, E. W., and Weleber, R. G. (1998) Autosomal dominant mutation of congenital cataract associated with a missense mutation in the alpha-crystallin gene CRYAA. Hum. Mol. Genet. 7, 471–474.
Noor, R., Mittal, S., and Iqbal, J. (2002) Superoxide dismutase—applications and relevance to human diseases. Med. Sci. Monit. 8, RA210-RA215.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
The present article represents a partly revised and updated version of chapter 1 published earlier in volume 232 of the series Methods in Molecular Biology (Walker, J. M., ed., Humana Press, Totowa, NJ), Protein Misfolding and Disease: Principles and Protocols (Bross, P. & Gregersen, N., eds.), pp. 3–16 (2003).
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Gregersen, N., Bolund, L. & Bross, P. Protein misfolding, aggregation, and degradation in disease. Mol Biotechnol 31, 141–150 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1385/MB:31:2:141
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1385/MB:31:2:141