Abstract
Previous research on antecedents of generalized control expectancies has indicated that parents of children with internal control expectancies express more warmth than parents of children with external control expectancies. However, few studies have utilized observational methodologies and no study has identified a specific mechanism by which parental warmth may contribute to differences in children's control expectancies. In addition, no study has examined whether individual differences in children's behavior are associated with differences in parental warmth. We tested the hypothesis that mothers of internally and externally controlled children would differ in their expression of nonverbal behavioral indicators of warmth. To test the hypothesis, the interactions of 50 second-grade children and their mothers were videotaped. Compared to mothers of externally controlled children, mothers of internally controlled children displayed more smiles, exhibited more positive touches (hugs, pats, rubs), and gazed for longer periods of time toward their child. Analyses of the children's behavior revealed that internally controlled children displayed more smiles and engaged in less off-task behavior than externally controlled children. Results of the current study further clarify the nature of the association between parental warmth and children's generalized control expectancies and suggest nonverbal behavior as a possible mechanism.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1964). The development of infant-mother attachment. In B. M. Caldwell and H. N. Ricciuti (Eds.), Review of child development research (pp. 1–94). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Baldwin, A. L. (1955). Behavior and development in childhood. New York: The Dryden Press.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss (volume 1): Attachment. New York: Basic Books, Inc.
Buriel, R. (1981). The relation of Anglo-and Mexican-American children's locus of control beliefs to parents' and teachers' socialization practices. Child Development, 52, 104–113.
Carton, J. S., & Nowicki, S., Jr. (1994) Antecedents of individual differences in locus of control of reinforcement: A critical review. Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs, 120, 31–81.
Carton, J. S., & Nowicki, S., Jr. (1996). Origins of generalized control expectancies: Reported child stress and observed maternal control and warmth. The Journal of Social Psychology, 136, 753–760.
Carton, J. S., Nowicki, S., Jr., & Balser, G. (1996). An observational study of antecedents of locus of control of reinforcement. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 19, 161–175.
Crandall, V. C., & Crandall, B. W. (1983). Maternal and childhood behaviors as antecedents of internal-external control perceptions in young adulthood. In H. M. Lefcourt (Ed.), Research with the locus of control construct (Vol.2): Developments and social problems (pp.53–103). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Ekman, P. (1988). Lying and nonverbal behavior: Theoretical issues and new findings. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 12, 163–175.
Gordon, D. A., Nowicki, S., Jr., & Wichern, F. (1981). Observed maternal and child behaviors in a dependency-producing task as a function of children's locus of control orientation. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 27, 43–51.
Hillison, J. (1983). Communicating humanism nonverbally. Journal of Humanistic Education and Development, 22, 25–29.
Hinsz, V. B., & Tomhave, J. A. (1991). Smile and (half) the world smiles with you. Frown and you frown alone. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17, 586–592.
Jones, S. E., & Yarbrough, A. E. (1985). A naturalistic study of the meanings of touch. Communication Monographs, 52, 19–56.
Kiesler, D. J. (1986). Interpersonal methods of diagnosis and treatment. In J. O. Cavenar (Ed.), Psychiatry (Vol. 1) (pp. 1–23). New York: Lippincott.
Krampen, G. (1989). Perceived childrearing practices and the development of locus of control in early adolescence. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 12, 177–193.
Lefcourt, H. M. (1966). Internal versus external control of reinforcement: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 65, 206–220.
Lefcourt, H. M. (1976). Locus of control: Current trends in theory and research. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Lefcourt, H. M. (1983). Research with the locus of control construct (Vol. 2): Development and social problems. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Lefcourt, H. M., & Davidson-Katz, K. (1991). Locus of control and health. In C. R. Snyder & D. R. Forsyth (Eds.), Handbook of social and clinical psychology (pp. 246–266). New York: Pergamon Press.
Nguyen, T., Heslin, R., & Nguyen, M. L. (1975). The meanings of touch: Sex differences. Journal of Communication, 25, 92–103.
Nowicki, S., Jr. (1995). Manual for the Children's Nowicki-Strickland Locus of Control Scale. Unpublished manuscript, Emory University, Atlanta.
Nowicki, S., Jr., & Duke, M. P. (1983). The Nowicki-Strickland life-span locus of control scales: Construct validation. In H. M. Lefcourt (Ed.), Research with the locus of control construct (Vol. 2): Developments and social problems (pp. 9–51). New York: Academic Press.
Nowicki, S., Jr., & Duke, M. P. (1989, June). A measure of nonverbal social processing ability in children between the ages of 6 and 10. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Society, Alexandria, VA.
Nowicki, S., Jr., & Schneewind, K. (1982). Relation of family climate variables to locus of control in German and American students. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 141, 277–286.
Nowicki, S., Jr., & Segal, W. (1974). Perceived parental characteristics, locus of control orientation, and behavioral correlates of locus of control. Developmental Psychology, 10, 33–37.
Nowicki, S., Jr., & Strickland, B. R. (1973). A locus of control scale for children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 40, 148–154.
Palmer, M. T., & Simmons, K. B. (1995). Communicating intentions through nonverbal behaviors: Conscious and nonconscious encoding of liking. Human Communication Research, 22, 128–160.
Peterson, C., & Stunkard, A. J. (1992). Cognates of personal control: Locus of control, self-efficacy, and explanatory style. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 1, 111–117.
Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80 (Whole No. 609).
Rotter, J. B. (1992). Some comments on the “Cognates of personal control.” Applied and Preventive Psychology, 1, 127–129.
Rotter, J. B., Chance, J. E., & Phares, E. J. (1972). Applications of a social learning theory of personality. New York: Hold, Rinehart, & Winston.
Siegman, A. W., & Feldstein, S. (1987). Nonverbal behavior and communication. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Carton, J.S., Carton, E.E.R. Nonverbal Maternal Warmth and Children's Locus of Control of Reinforcement. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 22, 77–86 (1998). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022904626582
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022904626582