Skip to main content
Log in

Palm oil: Biochemical, physiological, nutritional, hematological and toxicological aspects: A review

  • Published:
Plant Foods for Human Nutrition Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The link between dietary fats and cardiovascular diseases has necessitateda growing research interest in palm oil, the second largest consumedvegetable oil in the world. Palm oil, obtained from a tropical plant, Elaeis guineensis contains 50% saturated fatty acids, yet it does notpromote atherosclerosis and arterial thrombosis. The saturated fatty acidto unsaturated fatty acid ratio of palm oil is close to unity and it containsa high amount of the antioxidants, β-carotene, and vitamin E. Although palm oil-based diets induce a higher blood cholesterol level thando corn, soybean, safflower seed, and sunflower oils, the consumption ofpalm oil causes the endogenous cholesterol level to drop. Thisphenomenon seems to arise from the presence of the tocotrienols and thepeculiar isomeric position of its fatty acids.The benefits of palm oil to health include reduction in risk of arterialthrombosis and atherosclerosis, inhibition of endogenous cholesterolbiosynthesis, platelet aggregation, and reduction in blood pressure. Palm oilhas been used in the fresh state and/or at various levels of oxidation.Oxidation is a result of processing the oil for various culinary purposes.However, a considerable amount of the commonly used palm oil is in theoxidized state, which poses potential dangers to the biochemical andphysiological functions of the body. Unlike fresh palm oil, oxidized palm oilinduces an adverse lipid profile, reproductive toxicity and toxicity of thekidney, lung, liver, and heart. This may be as a result of the generation oftoxicants brought on by oxidation. In contrast to oxidized palm oil, red orrefined palm oil at moderate levels in the diet of experimental animalspromotes efficient utilization of nutrients, favorable body weight gains,induction of hepatic drug metabolizing enzymes, adequatehemoglobinization of red cells and improvement of immune function. However, high palm oil levels in the diet induce toxicity to the liver asshown by loss of cellular radial architecture and cell size reductions whichare corroborated by alanine transaminase to aspartate transaminase ratioswhich are higher than unity.The consumption of moderate amounts of palm oil and reduction in thelevel of oxidation may reduce the health risk believed to be associated withthe consumption of palm oil. Red palm oil, by virtue of itsβ-carotene content, may protect against vitamin A deficiency andcertain forms of cancer.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Hassan AH (1988) Palm oil and health. The Planter 64(752): 505–519.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Isong EU (1988) Biochemical and Nutritional studies on rat fed thermally oxidized palm oil (Elaeis guineensis). Nigeria: PhD Thesis, University of Calabar.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Usoro EJ (1974) The Nigerian oil palm industry. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Vickery ML, Vickery B (1979) Plant products of tropical Africa. London: Macmillan Press, pp 27–28.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Purseglove JW (1983) Tropical Crops Monocotyledons, vols. 1 and 2 combined. Essex, England: English Language Book Society and Longmans Group Ltd, pp 479–510.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Oyenuga VA (1968) Nigeria's Foods and Feeding Stuffs. 3rd edn. Ibadan: Ibadan University Press, 99 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  7. MacFarlane N, Swetmen AA, Coursey DG (1984) Comparison of traditional and industrial palm oil. Palm Oil News 28: 11–17.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Chong YH, Ng TKW (1991) Effects of palm oil on cardiovascular risk Med J Malaysia 46(1): 41–50.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Gunstone FD, Harwood JL, Padley FB (1986) The Lipid Handbook. London: Chapman and Hall, pp 76–78.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Cottrell RC (1991) Nutritional aspects of palm oil. Am J Clin Nutr 53: 989S–1009S.

    Google Scholar 

  11. Satchithanandam S, Reiks M, Calvert RJ, Cassidy MM, Kritchevsky D (1993) Coconut oil and sesame oil affect lymphatic absorption of cholesterol and fatty acids in rats. J Nutr 123: 1852–1858.

    Google Scholar 

  12. Ayre KJ, Hulbert AJ (1996) Dietary fatty acid profile influences the composition of skeletal muscle phospholipids in rats. J Nutr 126: 653–662.

    Google Scholar 

  13. Rukmini C (1994) Red palm oil to combat vitamin A deficiency in developing countries. Food Nutr Bull 15(2): 126–129.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Umoh IB, Ayalogu EO, Oke OL (1983) Effect of different levels of palm oil and sulphur in cassava-based diets. Food Chem 10(2): 83–95.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Idris NA, Samsuddin S (1993) Developments in food uses of palm oil: a brief review. Palmas 15(3): 66–69.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Ooi TL, Ying NC, Kilfi HI, Chako YM (1994) Palm oil-based printing ink. Palmas 15(1): 73–74.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Escobar R, Peralta F, Alpizar G (1994) Perspectives for the development of the oil palm industry worldwide. Palmas 15(1): 51–59.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Kheiri SA (1987) End uses of palm oil: human food. In Gunstone FD (ed), Palm Oil. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, pp 71–83.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Gunstone FD, Norris FA (1983) Lipids in Foods: Chemistry, Biochemistry and Technology. Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp 40, 141, 144-146.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Tan BK, Oh FCH (1981) Malaysian Palm Oil: Chemical and Physical Characteristics. PORIM Technology, Nos. 3 and 4, May 1981.

  21. Tan BK (1989) Novel fractions and fats from palm and palm kernel oils. Palm Oil Development, 11: PORIM, September 1989.

  22. Bracco U, Diffenbacher A, Kolarovic L (1985) Frying performance of palm oil liqui fractions. J Am Oil Chem Soc 58: 6–12.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Manorama R, Rukmini C (1991) Nutritional evaluation of crude palm oil in rats. Am J Clin Nutr 53: 1031S–1033S.

    Google Scholar 

  24. Edem DO (1999) Comparative biochemical and hematological studies on rats fed various levels of palm oil-containing diets. Nigeria: PhD Thesis, University of Calabar, 283 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  25. King B, Sibley I (1984) Authenticity of edible vegetable oils and fats. Part II. Palm oil and palm oil fractions. Surrey, UK: Leatherhead Food Research Association (LFRA research report no 642).

    Google Scholar 

  26. British Nutrition Foundation (1987) Trans Fatty acids: report of the BNF Task Force, BNF, London.

  27. Renaud SC, Ruf JC, Petithory D (1995) The positional distribution of fatty acids in palm oil and lard influences their biologic effects in rats. J Nutr 125: 229–237.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Goh SH, Choo YM, Ong SH (1985) Minor carotenoids of palm oil. J Am Oil Chem Soc 62: 237–240.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Sundram K, Top AGM (1994) Vitamin E from palm oil. Its extraction and nutritional properties. Palmas 15 (1): 77–82.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Krinsky NI (1992) Mechanism of action of biological antioxidants. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 200: 248–254.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Manorama R, Chinnasamy N, Rukmini C (1993) Effect of red palm oil on some hepatic drug-metabolizing enzymes in rats. Food Chem Toxicol 31 (8): 583–588.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Nesaretnam K, Devasagayam TP, Singh BB, Basiron Y (1993) The influence of palm oil or its tocotrienol-rich fraction on the lipid peroxidation potential of rat liver mitochondria and microsomes. Biochem Mol Biol Int 30 (1): 159–167.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Diplock AT (1994) Antioxidants and disease prevention. Med Aspect Med 15: 293–376.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Helub BJ, Sicilia I, Mahadevappa VG (1989) Effect of tocotrienol derivatives on collagen and ADP-induced plasma platelet aggregation. Abstracts 1989. PORIM International Palm Oil Development Conference, September 5-9, Kuala Lumpur, N 9.

  35. Qureshi AA, Qureshi N, Wright JJK, Shens S, Kromer G, Gapor A, Chong YH, Dewitt G, Ong ASH, Peterson D, Bradlow BA (1991) Lowering of serum cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic humans by tocotrienols (palm vitee). Am J Clin Nutr 53: 1021S–1026S.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Berger KG (1987) Palm oil. Chem Ind 24: 846–851.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Okiy DA, Oke OL (1984) A study of the effects of salt and pepper on palm oil used as a frying medium. Food Chem 14(4): 251–262.

    Google Scholar 

  38. Hendrich S, Lee K, Xu X, Wang H, Murphy PA (1994) Defining food components as new nutrients. J Nutr 124: 1789S–1792S.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Packer L (1992) Interactions among antioxidants in health and disease. Vitamin E and the redox cycle. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 200: 271–276.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Alais C, Linden G (1991) Biochimie alimentaire, 2nd edition. Paris: Mason, pp 110–116.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Olson JA (1994a) Vitamins: The tortuous path from needs to fantasies. J Nutr 124: 1771S–1776S.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Olson JA (1994b) Vitamin A, retinoids and carotenoids. In Shils ME, Olson JA, Shike M (eds), Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea and Febiger, pp 287–307.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Gaziano JM, Hennekens CH (1993). The role of beta-carotene in the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Ann N Y Acad Sci 691: 148–155.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Lehninger AL, Nelson DL, Cox Mm (1993) Principles of Biochemistry, 2nd ed. New York: Worth Publishers, pp 259–262.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Levin MS, Davis AE (1997) Retinoic acid increases cellular retinol binding protein II mRNA and retinol uptake in the human intestinal Caco-2 cell line. J Nutr 127: 13–17.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Morriss-Kay G (ed) (1992) Retinoids in normal development and tetratogenesis. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Blomhoff R (ed) (1994) Vitamin A in health and disease. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Sporn MB, Roberts AB, Goodman DS (eds) 1994. The Retinoids, 2nd edn. New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Semba RD (1994) Vitamin A, immunity and infection. Clin Infect Dis 19: 489–499.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Bates CJ (1995) Fat-Soluble vitamins: Vitamin A. The Lancet 345: 31–34.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Zachman RD (1995) Role of vitamin A in lung development. J Nutr 125: 1634S–1638S.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Whitney EN, Hamilton EMN, Rolfes SR (1990) Understanding nutrition, 5th ed. USA: West Publishing Co, pp 238–251.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Gouado I (1994) Status Vitaminique A et E des populations rurales de l'Ouest et de l'Extreme-Nord du Cameroun. Cameroun: PhD Thesis, University of Yaounde 1.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Goh SH, Hew NF, Norhanom AW, Yadav M (1994) Inhibition of tumor promotion by various palm oil tocotrienols. Int J Cancer 57: 529–531.

    Google Scholar 

  55. Gapor AB, Ong ASH, Kato A, Watanabe H, Kawada T (1989) Antioxodant activities of palm vitamin E with special reference to tocotrienols. Elaeis (The International Journal of Oil Palm Research and Development) 1(1): 63–67.

    Google Scholar 

  56. Gu J-Y, Tsujita A, Wakizono Y, Yamada K, Sugano M (1997) Combined effects of sesamin with alpha-tocopherol or tocotrienols on lipid and immune indices in Brown-Norway rats. Nutr Res 17(2): 339–350.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Pearce BC, Parker RA, Deason ME, Qureshi AA, Wright JJ (1992) Hypocholesterolemic activity of synthetic and natural tocotrienols. J Med Chem 35: 3595–3606.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Steiner M, Anatasi J (1975) Vitamin E and platelet aggregation. J Clin Invest 57: 732–737.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Chan AC, Leith MK (1981) Decreased prostacyclin synthesis in vitamin E deficient rabbit aorta. Am J Clin Nutr 34: 2341–2347.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Comstock GW, Helzlsoeur KJ, Bush TL (1991) Prediagnostic serum levelsof carotenoids and vitamin E as related to subsequent cancer in Washington county, Maryland. Am J Clin Nutr 53: 2805–2945.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Gould MN, Haag JD, Kennan WS, Tanner M, Elson C (1991) A comparison of tocopherol and tocotrienol for the chemoprevention of chemically-induced rat mammary tumours. Am J Clin Nutr 53: 10685–10705.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Knekt P, Reunanen A, Jarvinen R, Seppanen R, Heliövaara T, Aromaa A (1994) Antioxidant Vitamin intake and coronary mortality in a longitudinal population study. Am J Epidemiol 139(12): 1180–1189.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Ngah WZW, Jarien Z, San Mm, Marzuki A, Top GM, Shaman NA, Kadir KA (1991) Effect of tocotrienols on hepatocarcinogenesis induced by 2-acetylaminoflourene in rats. Am J Clin Nutr 53: 1076S–1081S.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Packer L (1994) Vitamin E is Nature's master antioxidant. Sci Am Sci Med 1(1): 54–63.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Kocharr SL (1981) Economic Botany in the Tropics. New Delhi, India: MacMillan.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Loncin M (1970) Palm Oil: A Major Tropical Product. Brussels: Unilever House.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Osim EE, Owu DU, Isong E, Umoh IB (1992) Influence of chronic consumption of themooxidized palm oil on platelet aggregation in the rats. Disc Innov 4(1): 83–87.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Osim EE, Owu DU, Isong E, Umoh IB (1994) Influence of chronic consumption of themooxidized and fresh palm oil diets on basal metabolicrate, body weight and morphology of tissues in rats. Disc Innov 6(4): 389–396.

    Google Scholar 

  69. Onyeneke EC, Alumanah EO (1991) The influence of cholesterol on plasma lecithin: cholesterol acyl transferase (LCAT) activity of rat. Nig J Nutr Sci 12(1): 14–17.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Hayes KC, Khosla P (1992) Dietary fatty acid thresholds and cholesterolemia. FASEB J 6: 2600–2607.

    Google Scholar 

  71. McNamara DJ (1992) Dietary fatty acids, lipoproteins and cardiovascular disease. Adv Food Nutr Res 36: 253–351.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Gurr MI, Harwood JL (1991) Lipid Biochemistry: An Introduction. 4th ed. London: Chapman and Hall, pp 184–237.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Lawn RM (1992) Lipoprotein in heart disease. Sci Am 266: 26–32.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Breslow JL (1988) Apolipoprotein genetic variation and human disease. Physiol Rev 68: 85–132.

    Google Scholar 

  75. Stamler J, Wentworth D, Neaton J (1986) Is the relationship between serum cholesterol and risk of death from coronary heart disease continuous and graded? J Am Med Assoc 256: 2823–2828.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Tan K, Marmot Mg, Talmud P, Humphries SE, Yudkin J, Betteridge DJ (1993) Hypertriglyceridemia and vascular risk. Lancet 342: 781–786.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Fernandez ML, Lin ECK, McNamara DJ (1992a) Regulation of guinea pig plasma low density lipoprotein kinetics by dietary fat saturation. J Lip Res 33: 97–109.

    Google Scholar 

  78. Fernandez ML, Lin ECK, McNamara DJ (1992b) Differential effects of saturated fatty acids on low density lipoprotein metabolism in the guinea pig. J Lip Res 33: 1833–1842.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Mutanen M, Kleemola P, Valsta LM, Mensink RP, Rasanen L (1992) Lack of effect on blood pressure by polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fat diets. Eur J Clin Nutr 46: 1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Mattson FH, Grundy SM (1985) Comparison of effects of dietary saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids on plasma lipids and lipoproteins in man. J Lip Res 26: 194–202.

    Google Scholar 

  81. Fernandez ML, McNamara DJ (1994) Dietary fat saturation and chain length modulate guinea pig hepatic cholesterol metabolism. J Nutr 124: 331–339.

    Google Scholar 

  82. Sugano M, Imaizumi K (1991) Effect of palm oil on lipid and lipoprotein metabolism and eicosanoid production in rats. Am J Clin Nutr 53: 1034S–1038S.

    Google Scholar 

  83. Bonanome A, Grundy SM (1998) Effect of dietary stearic acid on plasma cholesterol and lipoprotein levels. N Engl J Med 318: 1244–1248.

    Google Scholar 

  84. Baudet MF, Dachet C, Lasserre M, Esteva O, Jacotot B (1984) Modification in the composition and metabolic properties of human low density and high density lipoproteins by different dietary fats. J Lip Res 25: 456–468.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Grundy SM (1986) Comparison of monounsaturated fatty acids and carbohydrates for lowering plasma cholesterol. New Eng J Med 314: 745–748.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Hornstra G (1988) Dietary lipids and cardiovascular disease: effects of palmoil. Oleagineux 43(2): 75–81.

    Google Scholar 

  87. Hornstra G, Sundram K (1989) The Effect of Dietary Palm Oil on Cardiovascular Risk in Man. Abstracts 1989. International Development Conference, September 5-9, N 3. Kuala Lumpur: PORIM.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Khan SA, Chugtai AB, Khalid L, Jaffrey SA (1989) Comparative physiological evaluation of palm oil and hydrogenated vegetable oils in Pakistan. Proceedings 1989. Palm Oil International Development Conference, 5-9 September, pp 16–20. Kuala Lumpur, PORIM.

    Google Scholar 

  89. Abeywardena MY, McLennan PL, Charnock JS (1991) Changes in myocardial eicosanoid production following long term dietary lipid supplementation in rats. Am J Clin Nutr 53: 1039–1041.

    Google Scholar 

  90. Ng TKW, Hassan K, Lim JH, Lye MS, Ishak R (1991) Non hypercholesterolemic effects of a palm oil diet in Malaysian volunteers. Am J Clin Nutr 53: 1015S–1020S.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Marzuki A, Arshad F, Tariq AR, Jaarin K (1991) Influence of dietary fat on plasma lipid profiles of Malaysian adolescents. Am J Clin Nutr 53: 1010S–1014S.

    Google Scholar 

  92. Fernandez ML, Sun DM, Montano C, McNamara DJ (1995) Carbohydrate-fat exchange and regulation of hepatic cholesterol and plasma lipoprotein metabolism in the guinea pig. Metabolism 44: 855–864.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Foley M, Ball M, Chisholm A, Duncan A, Spears G, Mann J (1992) Should mono or poly-unsaturated fat replace saturated fat in the diet? Eur J Clin Nutr 46: 429–436.

    Google Scholar 

  94. Osim EE, Owu DU, Etta KM (1996) Arterial pressure and lipid profile in rats following chronic ingestion of palm oil diets. Afr J Med Sci 25 (4): 335–340.

    Google Scholar 

  95. Deferne JL, Leeds AR (1992) The antihypertensive effect of dietary supplementation with a 6-desaturate essential fatty acid concentrate ascompared with sunflower seed oil. J Hum Hyperten 6: 113–119.

    Google Scholar 

  96. Bairati I, Roy L, Meyer F (1992) Effect of a fish oil supplement on blood pressure and serum lipids in patients treated for coronary artery disease. Can J Cardiol 8: 41–46.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Engler MM (1993) Comparative study of diets enriched with evening primrose, black currant, borage or fungal oils on blood pressure and pressor responses in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essential Fatty Acids 49: 809–814.

    Google Scholar 

  98. Yin K, Chu ZM, Beilin LJ (1991) Blood pressure and vascular reactivity changes in spontaneously hypertensive rats fed fish oil. Br J Pharmacol 102: 991–997.

    Google Scholar 

  99. Kitagawa S, Yamaguchi Y, Kunitomo M, Imaizumi N, Fujiwara M (1992) Important of endothelium dependent relaxation in aorta from rats with arteriosclerosis induced by excess vitamin D and a high cholesterol diet. Jpn J Pharmacol 59: 339–347.

    Google Scholar 

  100. Owu DU, Osim EE, Orie NN, (1997) Altered responses of isolated aortic smooth muscle following chronic ingestion of palm oil diets in rats. Afr J Med Med Sci 26: 83–86.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Jenkins DK, Mitchell JC, Manku MS Horrobin DF (1988) Effects of different sources of gamma-linolenic acid on the formation of essential fattyacid and prostanoid metabolites. Med Sci Res 16: 525–526.

    Google Scholar 

  102. Hui R, St Louis J, Falardeau P (1989) Antihypertensive properties oflinoleic acid and fish oil omega-3 fatty acids independent of the prostaglandin system. Am J Hyperten 2: 610.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Engler MB (1992a) Vascular relaxation to omega-3 fatty acids: comparison to sodium nitroprusside, nitroglycerine, papaverine and D600. Cardiovasc. Drugs Ther 6: 605–610.

    Google Scholar 

  104. Engler MB (1992b) Effects of omega-3, omega-6 and omega-9 fatty acids onvascular smooth muscle tone. Eur J Pharmacol 215: 325–328.

    Google Scholar 

  105. Engler MB (1992c) Effects of omega-3 fatty acids, docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids on norepinephrine-induced contractions. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 70: 675–679.

    Google Scholar 

  106. Beilin LJ (1993) Dietary fats, fish and blood pressure. Ann N Y Acad Sci 683: 35–45.

    Google Scholar 

  107. Suchiro A, Kakishita E, Nagai K (1982) The role of platelet hyperfunction in thrombus formation in hyperlipidemia. Thromb Res 25(4): 331–339.

    Google Scholar 

  108. Hornstra G, Lussenburg RN (1975) Relationship between the type of dietaryfatty acid and arterial thrombosis tendency in rats. Atherosclerosis 22: 499–516.

    Google Scholar 

  109. Lowe GD, Johnson RV, Drummond Mm, Forber CD, Prentice OR (1979) Induction of circulating platelet aggregation in healthy subjects by a saturatedfat meal. Thromb Res 16: 565–568.

    Google Scholar 

  110. Harker LA, Kelly AB, Hanson SR, Krupski W, Bass A, Osterud B, Fitzgerald GA, Goodnight SH, Connor WW (1993) Interruption of vascular thrombus formation and vascular lesion formation by dietary n-3 fattyacids in fish oil in non human primates. Circulation 87: 1017–1029.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Rand ML, Hennsen AAHM Hornstra G (1988) Effects of dietary palm oil on arterial thrombosis, platelet responses and platelet membrane fluidity in rats. Lipids 23(11): 1019–1023.

    Google Scholar 

  112. Abeywardena MY, McLennan PL, Charnock JS (1989) Increase in myocardial PGI/TXA balance following long term palm oil feeding in the rat. J Molec Cell Cardiol (Supp II) 21: 599.

    Google Scholar 

  113. Eder K, Kirchgessner M (1995) Zinc deficiency and activities of lipogenic and glycolytic enzymes in livers of rats fed coconut oils or linseed oil. Lipids 30: 63–69.

    Google Scholar 

  114. Sundram K, Kohr HT, Ong ASH, Pathmanathan R (1989) Effect of dietary palm oils on mammary carcinogenesis induced by 7,12-dimethylbenzanthracene. Cancer Res 49: 1447–1451.

    Google Scholar 

  115. Owu DU, Osim EE, Ebong PE (1998) Serum liver enzymes profile of Wistar rats following chronic consumption of fresh or oxidized palm oil diets. Acta Tropica 65: 65–73.

    Google Scholar 

  116. Burskirk ER, Mendez J (1980) Energy: caloric requirements. In Alfin-Slater RB, Kritchevsky D (eds), Human Nutrition V3A. New York: Plenum Press, pp 49–95.

    Google Scholar 

  117. Isong EU, Ebong PE, Ifon ET, Umoh IB Eka OU (1997) Thermoxidized palm oil induces reproductive toxicity in healthy and malnourished rats. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 51: 159–166.

    Google Scholar 

  118. Krivenkova EM, Treschuk LI (1978) Morphological and functional investigation of testes of albino rats after long term inclusion in their ration ofthermally oxidized fats. Veprosy Pitaniya 6: 59–64.

    Google Scholar 

  119. Giassudin ASM (1985) The role and mode of action of vitamin E andselenium: a review. Nig J Biochem 2: 14–22.

    Google Scholar 

  120. McArdle HJ, Ashworth CJ (1999) Micronutrients in fetal growth and development. Br Med Bull 55(3): 499–510.

    Google Scholar 

  121. Fomunyam RT, Adegbola AA, Oke OL (1984) The reproductive, growthand carcass traits of rabbits fed cassava-based diets supplemented with palmoil. Food Chem 14(4): 263–272.

    Google Scholar 

  122. Ng TKW, Khor HT, Chong YH (1988) The digestion, absorption andutilization of refined palm oil, palm olein and palm stearin in the rat. Pertanika 11(3): 399–406.

    Google Scholar 

  123. Abaelu AM, Okochi VI, Oyesile OO, Akinyele JO, Akinrimisi EO (1991) Nigerian dietary oils and transport of amino acids in rat intestine. Nig J Physiol Sci 7: 32–37.

    Google Scholar 

  124. Fashakin JB, Unokiwedi CC (1993) Nutritional evaluation of 'warankasi' and 'waragusi' prepared from cow milk partially substituted with melon milk. Nig Food J 11: 128–134.

    Google Scholar 

  125. Newsholme EA, Calder P, Yaqoob P (1993) The regulatory, informationaland immunomodulatory roles of fat fuels. Am J Clin Nutr 57: (Suppl) 738S–751S.

    Google Scholar 

  126. Mead JF, Alfin-Slater RB, Howton DR, Popjak G (1986) Lipids: Chemistry, Biochemistry and Nutrition. New York and London: Plenum Press, pp. 459–473.

    Google Scholar 

  127. NRC (1978) National Research Council. Nutrient requirement of laboratory animals, no. 10, (3rd ed). Washington DC: National Academy of Sciences, pp 56–82.

    Google Scholar 

  128. Swash M, Mason S (1984) Hutchison's Clinical Methods 18th ed. East Sussex: Bailliere Tindall, pp 434–435.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Edem, D. Palm oil: Biochemical, physiological, nutritional, hematological and toxicological aspects: A review. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 57, 319–341 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021828132707

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021828132707

Navigation