Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

ADHD Outside the Laboratory: Boys' Executive Function Performance on Tasks in Videogame Play and on a Visit to the Zoo

  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

One current theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) proposes that a primary deficit in behavioral inhibition gives rise to secondary deficits in 4 executive functions and motor control. To date, empirical support for this model is based primarily on laboratory-based cognitive methods. This study assessed behavioral inhibition and executive functioning in children with ADHD in 2 real-life contexts: videogames (motor-skill target game, cognitively demanding adventure game) and an outing at the zoo (route tasks). Participants were a community sample of 57 boys diagnosed with ADHD (20 inattentive, 37 combined type) and 57 normally developing control boys, matched individually for age and nonverbal IQ. Operationally defined measures of behavioral inhibition and specific executive functions were derived from these activities and assessed under contrasting conditions of low or high working memory and distractor loads. There were no group differences in basic motor skills on the target game, nor in terms of the ability to inhibit a prepotent or ongoing response in the adventure videogame. However, boys with ADHD exhibited more self-talk, more effortful response preparation, and completed fewer challenges in the latter videogame. Also, they manifested inhibition deficits in terms of interference control during the route task at the zoo and took longer to complete the tasks. Typically, these differences were greatest under conditions of high working memory and distractor loads. Findings from this study suggest that cognitive difficulties in ADHD may be context dependent and that ADHD is associated with deficits in some but not all aspects of behavioral inhibition.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

REFERENCES

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

  • Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. London, UK: Clarendon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (1997). ADHD and the nature of self-control. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barkley, R. A. (2001). Genetics of childhood disorders: XVII. Part I: The executive functions and ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1064-1068.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benedetto-Nasho, E. (2000). Use of private speech during math computation in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Methodological challenges, task performance and effects of stimulant medication. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

  • Berk, L. E., & Potts, M. K. (1991). Development and functional significance of private speech among Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disordered and Normal Boys. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 19, 357-377.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biederman, J., Faraone, S. V., Mick, E., Williamson, S., Wilens, T. E., Spencer, T. J., et al. (1999). Clinical correlates of ADHD in females: Findings from a large group of girls ascertained from pediatric and psychiatric referral sources. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 966-975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bremner, J. G., & Andreasen, G. (1998). Young children's ability to use maps and models to find ways in novel spaces. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 16, 197-218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, C. L., & Tamm, L. (2000). Responsiveness of children with Attention Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder to reward and response cost: Differential impact on performance and motivation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 73-83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cary, D. (1997). Bart Star (D. Polcino, Director). In Mike Scully (Exec. Producer), The Simpsons. Century City: 20th Century Fox Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castellanos, F. X., Marvasti, F. F., Ducharme, J. L., Walter, J. M., Israel, M. E., Krain, A., et al. (2000). Executive function occulomotor tasks in girls with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 644-650.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cepeda, N. J., Cepeda, M. L., & Kramer, A. F. (2000). Task switching and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 213-226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crash Bandicoot™ [Computer software]. (1996). California: Naughty Dog Software.

  • Cupitt, M., & Stockbridge, S. (1996). Families and electronic entertainment. Sydney: Australian Broadcasting Commission and the Office of Film and Literature Classification.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeBonis, D. A., Ylvisaker, M., & Kundert, D. K. (2000). The relationship between ADHD theory and practice: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Attention Disorders, 4, 161-172.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Fockert, J. W., Rees, G., Frith, C. D., & Lavie, N. (2001). The role of working memory in visual sustained attention. Science, 291, 1803-1806.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dougherty, D. D., Bonab, A. A., Spencer T. J., Rauch, S. L., Madras, B. K., & Fischman, A. J. (1999). Dopamine transporter density is elevated in patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Lancet, 354, 2132-2133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Durkin, K., & Aisbett, K. (1999). Computer games and Australians today. NSW, Australia: Office of Film and Literature Classification.

    Google Scholar 

  • DuPaul, G. J., Power, T. T., Anastopoulos, A. D., & Reid, R. (1998). ADHD rating scale IV: Checklist, norms & clinical interpretation. New York: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Emes, C. (1997). Is Mr. Pac Man eating our children? A review of the effect of videogames on children. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 42, 409-414.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuster, J. M. (1989). The prefrontal cortex. New York: Raven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenfield, P. M. (1994). Videogames as cultural artifacts. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15, 3-12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenfield, P. M. (1999). The cultural evolution. In U. Neisser (Ed.), The rising curve (pp. 81-124). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenfield, P. M., & Cocking, R. R. (1994). Effects of interactive entertainment technologies on development. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 15, 1-2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenfield, P. M., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (1996). Interacting with video. Advances in Applied Developmental Psychology (Vol. 11). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

  • Houghton, S., Douglas, G., West, J., Whiting, K., Wall, M., Langsford, S., et al. (1999). Differential patterns of executive function in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder according to gender and subtype. Journal of Child Neurology, 14, 801-805.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirk, R. E. (1995). Experimental design procedures for the behavioral sciences (3rd Ed.). California: Brooks/Cole.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koepp, M. J., Gunn, R. N., Lawrence, A. D., Cunningham, V.J., Dagher, A., Jones, T., et al. (1998). Evidence for striatal dopamine release during a videogame. Nature, 393, 266-268.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krause, K. H., Dresel, S. H., Krause, J., Kung, H. F., & Tatsch, K. (2000). Increased striatal dopamine transporter in adult patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Effects of methylphenidate as measured by single photon emission computed tomography. Neuroscience Letters, 285, 107-110.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuntsi, J., Oosterlaan, J., & Stevenson, J. (2001). Psychological mechanisms in hyperactivity: I. Behavioral inhibition deficit, working memory impairment, delay aversion, or something else? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(2), 199-210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lezak, M. D. (1995). Neuropsychological assessment (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, K. Z. H., Lindenberger, U., Rünger, D., & Frensch, P. A. (2000). The role of inhibition in the regulation of sequential action. Psychological Science, 11, 343-347.

    Google Scholar 

  • Logie, R., Baddeley, A., Mané, A., Donchin, E., & Sheptak, R. (1989). Working memory in the acquisition of complex cognitive skills. Acta Psychologica, 71, 53-87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, W. G., Chavez, J. M., Baker, S. A., Guzman, B. L., & Azen, S. P. (1990). Reaction time, impulsivity, and attention in hyperactive children and controls: A videogame technique. Journal of Child Neurology, 5, 195-204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neale, M. D. (1989). Neale Analysis of Reading Ability (2nd Ed.). London: Macmillan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, C. A., Monk, C. S., Lin, J., Carver, L. J., Thomas, K. M., & Truwit, C. L. (2000). Functional neuroanatomy of spatial working memory in children. Developmental Psychology, 36, 109-116.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T. (1999). The ADHD response-inhibition deficit as measured by the stop task: Replication with DSM-IV combined type, extension, and qualification. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 27, 393-402.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nigg, J. T., Blaskey, L. G., Huang-Pollock, C. L., & Rappley, M. D. (2002). Neuropsychological executive functions and DSM-IV ADHD subtypes. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 59-66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oberauer, K., Süβ, H.-M., Schulze, R., Wilhelm, O., & Wittmann, W. W. (2000). Working memory capacity—Facets of a cognitive ability construct. Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 1017-1045.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pennington, B. F., & Ozonoff, S. (1996). Executive functions and developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 51-87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Point Blank™ [Computer software]. (1998). Japan: Namco.

  • Quay, H. C. (1997). Inhibition and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 25, 7-13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rapport, M. D. (2001). Bridging theory and practice: Conceptual understanding of treatments for children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), autism, and depression. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 3-7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rapport, M. D., Chung, K.-M., Shore, G., Denney, C. B., & Isaacs, P. (2000). Upgrading the science and technology of assessment and diagnosis: Laboratory and clinic-based assessment of children with ADHD. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 555-568.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rubia, K., Overmeyer, S., Taylor, E., Brammer, M., Williams, S., Simmons, A., et al. (1998). Prefrontal involvement in “temporal bridging” and timing movement. Neuropsychologia, 36, 1283-1293.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rucklidge, J. J., & Tannock, R. (2001). Psychiatric, psychosocial, and cognitive functioning of female adolescents with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 530-540.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schachar, R., Mota, V. L., Logan, G. D., Tannock, R., & Klim, P. (2000). Confirmation of an inhibitory control deficit in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 227-235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schachar, R., Tannock, R., Marriott, M., & Logan, G. (1995). Deficient inhibitory control in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23, 411-437.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaffer, R. J., Jacokes, L. E., Cassily, J. F., Greenspan, S. I., Tuchman, R. F., & Stemmer, P. J., Jr. (2001). Effect of interactive metronome training on children with ADHD. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 55, 155-162.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheres, A., Oosterlaan, J., & Sergeant, J. A. (2001). Response execution and inhibition in children with AD/HD and other disruptive disorders: The role of behavioural activation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 347-357.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slusarek, M., Velling, S., Bunk, D., & Eggers, C. (2001). Motivational effects on inhibitory control in children with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 355-363.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tannock, R. (1997). Television, videogames, and ADHD: Challenging a popular belief. The ADHD Report, 5, 3-7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tannock, R. (1998). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Advances in cognitive, neurobiological, and genetic research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 65-99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warner-Rogers, J., Taylor, A., Taylor, E., & Sandberg, S. (2000). Inattentive behavior in childhood: Epidemiology and implications for development. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 520-536.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. (1991). Wechsler intelligence scale for children (Rev. 3rd ed.). New York: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Winsler, A. (1998). Parent-child interaction and private speech in boys with ADHD. Applied Developmental Science, 2, 17-39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zentall, S. S. (1993). Research on the educational implications of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Exceptional Children, 60, 143-153.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. The Graduate School of Education, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

    Vivienne Lawrence, Stephen Houghton & Graham Douglas

  2. Brain & Behavior Research Program, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada

    Rosemary Tannock

  3. Department of Psychology, The University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

    Kevin Durkin

  4. Community Consultant Pediatrician, Perth, Western Australia, Australia

    Ken Whiting

Authors
  1. Vivienne Lawrence
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Stephen Houghton
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Rosemary Tannock
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Graham Douglas
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Kevin Durkin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Ken Whiting
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Stephen Houghton.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Lawrence, V., Houghton, S., Tannock, R. et al. ADHD Outside the Laboratory: Boys' Executive Function Performance on Tasks in Videogame Play and on a Visit to the Zoo. J Abnorm Child Psychol 30, 447–462 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1019812829706

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1019812829706

Search

Navigation