Abstract
Homeless women experience extensive health risks including physical and sexual victimization. Few studies that have gathered information on homeless persons have reported results separately for women or have compared them directly with men. Research that both investigates antecedents of victimization among homeless women and compares them to those for men is necessary to determine whether prevention efforts must be different for each group. We investigated potential antecedents of recent (past 30 days) physical and sexual victimization in a probability sample of 394 homeless women and compared findings to those for 1159 homeless men. As hypothesized, mental disorder, substance dependence, and engaging in economic survival strategies significantly predicted victimization among homeless women. With few dissimilarities, these characteristics also predicted victimization among homeless men. Although differences in the needs and experiences of homeless women and men must be recognized, both women and men require assistance to establish and maintain safe residences, treatment of any substance use and mental disorder, and alternatives to economic survival strategies that place them at risk for victimization.
Similar content being viewed by others
REFERENCES
Alexander, M. J. (1996). Women with co-occurring addictive and mental disorders: An emerging profile of vulnerability. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,66, 61–70.
Amaro, H. (1995). Love, sex, and power: considering women's realities in HIV prevention. American Psychologist, June, 437–447.
Baker, T. C., Burgess, A. W., Brickman, E., & Davis, R. C. (1990). Rape victim's concerns about possible exposure to HIV infection. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 5(1), 49–60.
Barbee, E. L. (1991). Ethnicity and woman abuse in the United States. In C. M. Sampselle (Ed.), Violence against women: Nursing research, education, and practice issues. New York: Hemisphere.
Bard, M., & Sangrey, D. (1986). The crime victim's book (2nd ed.) New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Bassuk, E. L. (1993). Social and economic hardships of homeless and other poor women. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 63(3), 340–347.
Bassuk, E. L., Weinreb, L. F., Buckner, J. C., Salomon, A., & Bassuk, S. S. (1996). The characteristics and needs of sheltered homeless and low-income housed mothers. JAMA, 28(27), 640–646.
Bassuk, E. L., Buckner, J. C., Weinreb, L. F., Browne, A., Bassuk, S. S., Dawson, R., & Perloff, J. N. (1997). Homelessness in female-headed families: Childhood and adult risk and protective factors. American Journal of Public Health, 87(2), 241–248.
Bassuk, E. L., Melnick, S., & Browne, A. (1998). Responding to the needs of low-income and homeless women who are survivors of family violence. Journal of the American Medical Women's Association, 53(2), 57–64.
Baumohl, J., & Miller, H. (1984). Down and out in Berkeley. Report prepared for the City of Berkeley, University of California Community Affairs Committee.
Baxter, E., & Hopper, K. (1981). Private lives/public spaces. New York: Community Service Society.
Beckman, L. J., & Amaro, H. (1986). Personal and social difficulties faced by women and men entering alcoholism treatment. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 47, 135–145.
Beitchman, J. H., Zucker, K. J., Hood, J. E., DaCosta, G. A., Akman, D., & Cassavia, E. (1992). A review of the long-term effects of child sexual abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 16, 101–118.
Benda, B., & Dattalo, P. (1990). Homeless women and men: Their problems and use of services. Affilia, 5(3), 50–82.
Bennett, L. (1995). Substance abuse and the domestic assault of women. Social Work, 40(6), 760–771.
Bennett, L., & Lawson, M. (1994). Barriers to cooperation between domestic violence and substance abuse programs. Families in Society: Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 75(5), 277–286.
Blankertz, L. E., Cnaan, R. A., White, K., Fox, J., & Messinger, K. (1990). Outreach efforts with dually diagnosed homeless persons. Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 71, 387–397.
Breakey, W. R., Fischer, P. J., & Kramer, M. (1989). Health and mental health problems of homeless men and women in Baltimore. JAMA, 262, 1352–1357.
Breton, M., & Bunston, T. (1992). Physical and sexual violence in the lives of homeless women.Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health, 11(1), 29–44.
Brown, E. R. (1992). Program and staff characteristics in successful treatment. In M. M. Kilbey & K. Ashgar (Eds.), Methodological issues in epidemiological, prevention, and treatment research on drug-exposed women and their children,NIDAResearch Monograph 117. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.
Browne, A., & Bassuk, S. S. (1997). Intimate violence in the lives of homeless and poor housed women: Prevalence and patterns in an ethnically diverse sample. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,67(2), 261–278.
Bureau of Justice Statistics (1994). Selected findings: Violence between intimates, NCJ-149259. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
Burnam, M. A., & Koegel, P. (1988). Methodology for obtaining a representative sample of homeless persons: The Los Angeles Skid Row Study. Evaluation Review, 12, 117–152.
Burnam, M. A., Stein, J. A., Golding, J. M., Siegel, J. M., Sorenson, S. B., Forsythe, A. B., & Telles, C. A. (1988). Sexual assault and mental disorders in a community population. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 56(6), 843–850.
Burt, M. R., & Cohen, B. E. (1989). Differences among single homeless women, women with children, and single men. Social Problems, 36, 508.
Campbell, J. C., & Landenburger, K. (1995). Violence against women. In C. I. Fogel & N. F. Woods (Eds.), Women's health care: A comprehensive handbook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Carlson, R. G., & Siegal, H. A. (1991). The crack life: An ethnographic overview of crack use and sexual behavior among African-Americans in amidwest metropolitan city. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 23(1), 11–20.
Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences.Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Collins, J. J. (1990). Summary thoughts about drugs and violence. In M. De La Rosa, E. Y. Lambert, & B. Gropper (Eds.), Drugs and violence: Causes, correlates, and consequences, NIDA Research Monograph 103. Rockville, MD: USDHHS.
Coston, C. T. M., & Finckenauer, J. O. (1993). Fear of crime among vulnerable populations: homeless women. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, 1, 1–21.
Davidson, L. L. (1996). Editorial: Preventing injuries from violence towards women. American Journal of Public Health, 86(1), 1996.
D'Ercole, A., & Struening, E. (1990). Victimization among homeless women: Implications for service delivery. Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 141–152.
Dutton, M. A., Burghardt, K. J., Perrin, S. G., Chrestman, K. R., & Halle, P. M. (1994). Battered women's cognitive schemata. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 7(2), 237–255.
Dutton, M. A., Hohnecker, L. C., Halle, P. M., & Burghardt, K. J. (1994). Traumatic responses among battered women who kill. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 7(4), 549–564.
Fagan, J., & Chin, K. (1990). Violence as regulation and social control in the distribution of crack. In M. De La Rosa, E. Y. Lambert, & B. Gropper (Eds.), Drugs and violence: Causes, correlates, and consequences, NIDAResearch Monograph 103. Rockville, MD: USDHHS.
Finkelhor, D. (1994a). Current information on the scope and nature of child sexual abuse. The future of children: Sexual abuse of children, 4(2), 31–53.
Finkelhor, D. (1994b). The international epidemiology of child sexual abuse. Child Abuse and Neglect, 18(5), 409–417.
Finkelhor, D., & Browne, A. (1985). The traumatic impact of child sexual abuse:Aconceptualization. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 55, 530–541.
Fischer, P. J. (1990). Alcohol and drug abuse and mental health problems among homeless persons: A review of the literature, 1980–1990. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism and National Institute of Mental Health.
Fisher, B., Hovell, M., Hofstetter, C. R., & Hough, R. (1995). Risks associated with longterm homelessness among women: Battery, rape, and HIV infection. International Journal of Health Services, 25(2), 351–369.
Frieze, I. H., Hymer, S., & Greenberg, M. S. (1987). Describing the crime victim: psychological reactions to victimization. Professional Psychology, 18, 299–315.
Gardner S. E., & Resnik H. (1996). Violence among youth: Origins and a framework for prevention. In R. L. Hampton, P. Jenkins, & T. P. Gullotta (Eds.), Preventing violence in America. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Garske, D. (1996). Transforming the culture: Creating safety, equality, and justice for women and girls. In R. L. Hampton, P. Jenkins, & T. P. Gullotta (Eds.), Preventing violence in America. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Gelberg, L. (1996). Homeless persons. In R. M. Andersen, T. H. Rice, & G. F. Kominski (Eds.), Changing the U.S. health care system. n Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Gelberg, L., & Linn, L. S. (1988). Social and physical health of homeless adults previously treated for mental health problems. Hospital and Community Psychiatry, 39(5), 510–516.
Geissler, L. J., Bormann, C. A., Kwiatkowski, C. F., Braucht, G. N., & Reichardt, C. S. (1995). Women, homelessness, and substance abuse: Moving beyond the stereotypes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19, 65–83.
Gidycz, C. A., Hanson K., & Layman, M. J. (1995). A prospective analysis of the relationships among sexual assault experiences. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19, 5–29.
Gielen, A. C., O'Campo, P. J., Faden, R. R., Kass, N. E., & Xue, X. (1994). Interpersonal conflict and physical violence during the childbearing year. Social Science & Medicine, 39(6), 7811–787.
Gold, E. R. (1986). Long-term effects of sexual victimization in childhood: an attributional approach. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54(4), 471–475.
Golding, J. M. (1994). Sexual assault history and physical health in randomly selected Los Angeles women. Health Psychology, 13(2), 130–138.
Golding, J. M., Stein, J. A., Siegel, J. M., Burnam, M. A., & Sorenson, S. A. (1988). Sexual assault history and use of health and mental health services. American Journal of Community Psychology, 16(5), 625–644.
Goldstein, P. J. (1985). The drugs-violence nexus: A tripartite conceptual framework. Journal of Drug Issues, 15, 493–506.
Goodman, L. A. (1991). The prevalence of abuse in the lives of homeless and housed poor mothers: A comparison study. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61, 489–500.
Goodman, L. A., Dutton, M. A., & Harris, M. (1995). Episodically homeless women with serious mental illness: Prevalence of physical and sexual assault. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 65(4), 468–478.
Grisso, J. A., Schwarz, D. F., Miles, C. G., & Holmes, J. H. (1996). Injuries among inner-city minority women: A population-based longitudinal study. American Journal of Public Health,86(1), 67–70.
Hagen, J. (1987). Gender and homelessness. Social Work, 32, 312–316.
Hawk, M. A. N. (1994). How social policies make matters worse: The case of maternal substance abuse. Journal of Drug Issues, 24, 517–526.
Hightower, V., & McManus (1989). Limits of state constitutional guarantees: Lessons from efforts to implement domestic violence policies. Public Administration Review, 49, 269.
Hirschi, T., & Gottfredson, M. R. (1983). Age and the explanation of crime. American Journal of Sociology, 89, 522–584.
Hotaling, G. T., Finkelhor, D., Kirkpatrick, J. T., & Straus, M. (1988). Family abuse and its consequences. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Jahiel, R. I. (1992). Health and health care of homeless people. In M. J. Robertson & M. Greenblatt (Eds.), Homelessness: A national perspective. New York: Plenum.
Kantor, G. K. (1993). Refining the brushstrokes in portraits on alcohol and wife assaults. In Alcohol and personal violence: Fostering multidisciplinary perspectives (pp. 281–290), NIAAA Monograph 24. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.
Kline, A., & Strickler, J. (1993). Perceptions of risk for AIDS among women in drug treatment. Health Psychology, 12, 313–323.
Koegel, P., & Burnam, M. A. (1991). Course of homelessness among the seriously mentally ill. Rockville, MD: National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism.
Koegel, P., Burnam, M. A., & Farr, R. K. (1988). The prevalence of specific psychiatric disorders among homeless individuals in the inner-city of LosAngeles. Archives of General Psychiatry,45, 1085–1092.
Koegel, P., Burnam, M. A., & Morton, S. (1996). Enumerating homeless people, alternative strategies and their consequences. Evaluation Review, 20, 378–403.
Koegel, P., Sullivan, G., Burnam, A., Morton, S., & Wenzel, S. (1999). Utilization of mental health and substance abuse services among homeless adults in Los Angeles. Medical Care, 37(3), 306–317.
Koss, M. P. (1990). The women's mental health research agenda. American Psychologist, 45, 374–380.
Koss, M. P. (1993). Rape: Scope, impact, interventions and public policy responses. American Psychologist, 48, 1062–1069.
Lechner, M. E., Vogel, M. E., Garcia-Shelton, L. M., Leichter, J. L., & Steibel, K. R. (1993). Self-reported medical problems of adult female survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Family Practice, 36(6), 633–638.
Lindholm, K., & Willey. R. (1986). Ethnic differences in child abuse and sexual abuse. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 8, 111–125.
Lisak, D., & Luster, L. (1994). Educational, occupational, and relationship histories of men who were sexually and/or physically abused as children. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 7(4), 507–523.
Lynch, J. P. (1987). Routine activity and victimization at work. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 3, 283–300.
Malinosky-Rummell, R., & Hansen, D. J. (1993). Long-term consequences of childhood sexual abuse. Psychological Bulletin, 114(1), 68–79.
McCarty, D., Argeriou, M., Huebner, R. B., & Lubran, B. (1991). Alcoholism, drug abuse, and the homeless. American Psychologist, 46, 1139–1148.
Miethe, T. D., & Meier, R. F. (1990). Opportunity, choice, and criminal victimization: A test of a theoretical model. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 27, 243–266.
Miller, B. A. (1990). The interrelationships between alcohol and drugs and family violence. National Institute on Drug Abuse: Research Monograph Series, 103, 177–207.
Miller, B. A., Downs, W. R., & Testa, M. (1993). Interrelationships between victimization experiences and women's alcohol use. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, Supplement, 11, 109–117.
Moeller, T. P., Bachmann, G. A., & Moeller, J. R. (1993). The combined effects of physical, sexual, and emotional abuse during childhood: Long-term health consequences for women. Child Abuse and Neglect, 17, 623–640.
Nash, M. R., Hulsey, T. L., Sexton, M. C., Harralson, T. L., & Lambert, W. (1993). Longterm sequelae of childhood sexual abuse: Perceived family environment, psychopathology, and disassociation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61(2), 276–283.
National Coalition for the Homeless (1996). NCH fact sheet: Domestic violence and homelessness. Washington, DC: Author.
National Research Council (1996). Understanding violence against women. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
New York State Department of Health (1996). Physical violence and injuries in intimate relationships: New York, Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 1994. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 45(35), 765–767.
North, C. S., & Smith, E. M. (1993). A comparison of homeless men and women: Different populations, different needs. Community Mental Health Journal, 29(5), 423–431.
North, C. S., Smith, E. M., & Spitznagel, E. L. (1994). Violence and the homeless: An epidemiologic study of victimization and aggression. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 7(1), 95–110.
O'Keefe, M. (1994). Racial/ethnic differences among battered women and their children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 3, 283–305.
Padgett, D. K., & Struening, E. L. (1992). Victimization and traumatic injuries among the homeless: Associations with alcohol, drug, and mental problems. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 62(4), 525–534.
Patterson, G. R. (1982). Coercive family process. Eugene, OR: Castalia.
Patterson, G. R. (1986). Performance models for antisocial boys. American Psychologist, 41, 432–444.
Peters, S. D., Wyatt, G. E., & Finkelhor, D. (1986). Prevalence. In D. Finkelhor & S. Araji (Eds.), A sourcebook on child sexual abuse. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. (1983). Learned helplessness and victimization. Journal of Social Issues, 39(2), 103–116.
Pransky, J. (1991). Prevention: The critical need. Springfield, MO: Burrell Foundation.
Reed, B. G. (1987). Developing women-sensitive drug dependence treatment services: Why so difficult? Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 19(2), 151–164.
Rodgers, K., & Roberts, G. (1995). Women's non-spousal multiple victimization: A test of the routine activities theory. Canadian Journal of Criminology, 37(3), 361–391.
Roberston, M. J. (1991). Homeless women with children. American Psychologist, 46, 1198.
Robertson, M. J., & Winkleby, M. A. (1996). Mental health problems of homeless women and differences across subgroups. Annual Review of Public Health, 17, 311–336.
Robins, L. N., Helzer, J. E., Croughan, J. L., & Ratcliff, K. S. (1981). National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule: Its history, characteristics, and validity. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 381–389.
Rossi, P. H., Fisher, G. A., & Willis, G. (1986). The condition of the homeless of Chicago. Amherst, MA: Social and Demographic Research Institute.
Sampson, R. J., & Lauritsen, J. L. (1990). Deviant lifestyles, proximity to crime, and the offender-victim link in personal violence. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 27(2), 110–139.
SAS Institute, Inc. (1990). SAS/STAT user's guide, Version 6, Vol. 2 (4th ed.). Cary, NC: SAS Institute, Inc.
Sherbourne, C. D., & Stewart, A. L. (1991). The MOS social support survey. Social Science and Medicine, 32, 705.
Simons, R., & Whitbeck, L. (1991). Sexual abuse as a precursor to prostitution and victimization among adolescent and adult homeless women. Family Issues, 12, 361–379.
Smith, E. M., & North, C. S. (1994). Not all homeless women are alike: Effects of motherhood and the presence of children. Community Mental Health Journal, 30, 601.
Sorenson, S. B., & Siegel, J. M. (1992). Gender, ethnicity, and sexual assault: Findings from a Los Angeles study. Journal of Social Issues, 48(19), 93–104.
Sorenson, S. B., Upchurch, D. M., & Shen, H. (1996). Violence and injury in marital arguments: Risk patterns and gender differences. American Journal of Public Health, 86(1), 35–40.
Stark, E., & Flitcraft, A. (1988). Women and children at risk: A feminist perspective on child abuse, International Journal of Health Services, 18(1), 97.
Stark, E., & Flitcraft, A. (1991). Spouse abuse. In M. L. Rosenberg & M. A. Fenley (Eds.), Violence in America: A public health approach. New York: Oxford University Press.
Stein, J. A., & Gelberg, L. (1995). Gender differences in the mediating effect of substance abuse on the severity of homelessness. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 3(1), 75–86.
Stewart, A. L., & Kamberg, C. J. (1992). Physical Functioning Measures. In A. L. Stewart & J. E. Ware, Jr. (Eds.), Measuring functioning and well-being: The Medical Outcomes Study approach. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
Struening, E. L., & Padgett, D. K. (1990). Physical health status, substance use and abuse, and mental disorders among homeless adults. Journal of Social Issues, 46, 65–81.
Sutherland, C., Bybee, D., & Sullivan, C. (1998). The long-term effects of battering on women's health. Women's Health, 4(1), 41–70.
Swett, C., Surrey, J., & Cohen, C. (1990). Sexual and physical abuse histories and psychiatric symptoms among male psychiatric outpatients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147(5), 632–636.
Ugarriza, D. N., & Fallon, T. (1994). Nurses' attitudes toward homeless women: A barrier to change. Nursing Outlook, 42, 26–29.
Ullman, S. E., & Siegel, J. M. (1994). Predictors of exposure to traumatic events and posttraumatic stress sequelae. Journal of Community Psychology, 22, 328–338.
U.S. Congress (1990). The Violence Against Women Act of 1990: Hearings on S. 2754, Senate Committee for the Judiciary, Report 101–545, 101st Congress, 2d session, p. 37.
Wenzel, S. L., Bakhtiar, L., Caskey, N. H., Hardie, E., Redford, C., Sadler, N., & Gelberg, L. (1996). Dually diagnosed homeless veterans in residential treatment: Service needs and service use. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 184(7), 441–444.
Wenzel, S. L., Koegel, P., & Gelberg, L. (1996). Access to substance abuse treatment for homeless women of reproductive age. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 28(1), 17–30.
Whitbeck, L., & Simons, R. (1990). Life on the streets: The victimization of runaway and homeless adolescents. Youth and Society, 22, 108–125.
Whitbeck, L., & Simons, R. (1993). A comparison of adaptive strategies and patterns of victimization among homeless adolescents and adults. Violence and Victims, 8(2), 135–152.
Woodhouse, L. D. (1992). Women with jagged edges: Voices from a culture of substance abuse. Qualitative Health Research, 2(3), 262–281.
Wyatt, G. E., & Powell, G. J. (1988). Lasting effects of child sexual abuse. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Zorza, J. (1991). Woman battering: A major cause of homelessness. Clearinghouse Review, 24(4), 421–429.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wenzel, S.L., Koegel, P. & Gelberg, L. Antecedents of Physical and Sexual Victimization Among Homeless Women: A Comparison to Homeless Men. Am J Community Psychol 28, 367–390 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005157405618
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005157405618